Annual Research Review: All mothers are not created equal: neural and psychobiological perspectives on mothering and the importance of individual differences / Jennifer BARRETT in Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52-4 (April 2011)  

Public ISBD [article]  inJournal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry > 52-4 (April 2011) . - p.368-397 Titre : Annual Research Review: All mothers are not created equal: neural and psychobiological perspectives on mothering and the importance of individual differences Type de document : texte imprimé Auteurs : Jennifer BARRETT, Auteur ; Alison S. FLEMING, Auteur Année de publication : 2011 Article en page(s) : p.368-397 Langues : Anglais (eng) Mots-clés : Adversity  maternal depression  brain imaging  parenting  mothers Index. décimale : PER Périodiques Résumé : Quality of mothering relies on the integrity of multiple physiological and behavioral systems and on two maternal factors, one proximal and one distal, that have a great impact on how a mother mothers: postpartum depression and early experiences. To mother appropriately requires the action of systems that regulate sensation, perception, affect, reward, executive function, motor output and learning. When a mother is at risk to engage in less than optimal mothering, such as when she is depressed or has experienced adversity in childhood, the function of many or all of maternal and related systems may be affected. In this paper, we will review what is currently known about the biological basis of mothering, with attention to literature on hormones but with a particular focus on recent advances in the fields of functional neuroimaging. Instead of discussing strictly ‘maternal’ brain imaging studies, we instead use a systems approach to survey important findings relevant to brain systems integral to and/or strongly related to the mothering experience: (a) social behavior; (b) reward and affect; (c) executive function; and (d) maternal behavior. We find that there are many commonalities in terms of the brain regions identified across these systems and, as we would expect, all are sensitive to the influence of, or function differently in the context of, depression and adverse early experience. It is likely that the similarity and cross-talk between maternal, affect and stress systems, observed behaviorally, hormonally and in the context of brain function, allows for mood disturbance and early adverse experiences to have a significant impact on the quality of mothering and the motivation to mother. En ligne : http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02306.x Permalink : https://www.cra-rhone-alpes.org/cid/opac_css/index.php?lvl=notice_display&id=119 [article] Annual Research Review: All mothers are not created equal: neural and psychobiological perspectives on mothering and the importance of individual differences [texte imprimé] / Jennifer BARRETT, Auteur ; Alison S. FLEMING, Auteur . - 2011 . - p.368-397. Langues : Anglais (eng) in Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry > 52-4 (April 2011) . - p.368-397 Mots-clés : Adversity  maternal depression  brain imaging  parenting  mothers Index. décimale : PER Périodiques Résumé : Quality of mothering relies on the integrity of multiple physiological and behavioral systems and on two maternal factors, one proximal and one distal, that have a great impact on how a mother mothers: postpartum depression and early experiences. To mother appropriately requires the action of systems that regulate sensation, perception, affect, reward, executive function, motor output and learning. When a mother is at risk to engage in less than optimal mothering, such as when she is depressed or has experienced adversity in childhood, the function of many or all of maternal and related systems may be affected. In this paper, we will review what is currently known about the biological basis of mothering, with attention to literature on hormones but with a particular focus on recent advances in the fields of functional neuroimaging. Instead of discussing strictly ‘maternal’ brain imaging studies, we instead use a systems approach to survey important findings relevant to brain systems integral to and/or strongly related to the mothering experience: (a) social behavior; (b) reward and affect; (c) executive function; and (d) maternal behavior. We find that there are many commonalities in terms of the brain regions identified across these systems and, as we would expect, all are sensitive to the influence of, or function differently in the context of, depression and adverse early experience. It is likely that the similarity and cross-talk between maternal, affect and stress systems, observed behaviorally, hormonally and in the context of brain function, allows for mood disturbance and early adverse experiences to have a significant impact on the quality of mothering and the motivation to mother. En ligne : http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02306.x Permalink : https://www.cra-rhone-alpes.org/cid/opac_css/index.php?lvl=notice_display&id=119

A DRD4 gene by maternal sensitivity interaction predicts risk for overweight or obesity in two independent cohorts of preschool children / Robert LEVITAN in Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58-2 (February 2017)  

Public ISBD [article]  inJournal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry > 58-2 (February 2017) . - p.180-188 Titre : A DRD4 gene by maternal sensitivity interaction predicts risk for overweight or obesity in two independent cohorts of preschool children Type de document : texte imprimé Auteurs : Robert LEVITAN, Auteur ; Pauline W. JANSEN, Auteur ; Barbara WENDLAND, Auteur ; Henning TIEMEIER, Auteur ; Vincent W.V. JADDOE, Auteur ; Patricia P. SILVEIRA, Auteur ; James L. KENNEDY, Auteur ; Leslie ATKINSON, Auteur ; Alison S. FLEMING, Auteur ; Marla SOKOLOWSKI, Auteur ; Helene GAUDREAU, Auteur ; Meir STEINER, Auteur ; Laurette DUBE, Auteur ; Jill HAMILTON, Auteur ; Ellen MOSS, Auteur ; Ashley WAZANA, Auteur ; Michael J. MEANEY, Auteur Année de publication : 2017 Article en page(s) : p.180-188 Langues : Anglais (eng) Mots-clés : Maternal sensitivity  DRD4  obesity  sex differences Index. décimale : PER Périodiques Résumé : Background Recent evidence suggests that early exposure to low maternal sensitivity is a risk factor for obesity in children and adolescents. A separate line of study shows that the seven-repeat (7R) allele of the dopamine-4 receptor gene (DRD4) increases susceptibility to environmental factors including maternal sensitivity. The current study integrates these lines of work by examining whether preschoolers carrying the 7R allele are more vulnerable to low maternal sensitivity as it relates to overweight/obesity risk. Method The Maternal Adversity Vulnerability and Neurodevelopment (MAVAN) project in Canada was used as the discovery cohort (N = 203), while the Generation R study in the Netherlands was used as a replication sample (N = 270). Regression models to predict both continuous BMI z-scores and membership in any higher BMI category based on established World Health Organization (WHO) cutoffs for 48 months of age were completed. Results In both cohorts, there was a significant maternal sensitivity by DRD4 by sex interaction predicting higher body mass indices and/or obesity risk. As hypothesized, post hoc testing revealed an inverse relationship between maternal sensitivity and body mass indices in 7R allele carriers relative to noncarriers. This finding was strongest in girls in the Canadian cohort and in boys in the Dutch cohort. Conclusions Many children who carry the 7R allele of DRD4 appear to be more influenced by maternal sensitivity as it relates to overweight/obesity risk, consistent with a plasticity effect. Given the relatively small sample sizes available for these analyses, further replications will be needed to confirm and extend these results. En ligne : http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12646 Permalink : https://www.cra-rhone-alpes.org/cid/opac_css/index.php?lvl=notice_display&id=299 [article] A DRD4 gene by maternal sensitivity interaction predicts risk for overweight or obesity in two independent cohorts of preschool children [texte imprimé] / Robert LEVITAN, Auteur ; Pauline W. JANSEN, Auteur ; Barbara WENDLAND, Auteur ; Henning TIEMEIER, Auteur ; Vincent W.V. JADDOE, Auteur ; Patricia P. SILVEIRA, Auteur ; James L. KENNEDY, Auteur ; Leslie ATKINSON, Auteur ; Alison S. FLEMING, Auteur ; Marla SOKOLOWSKI, Auteur ; Helene GAUDREAU, Auteur ; Meir STEINER, Auteur ; Laurette DUBE, Auteur ; Jill HAMILTON, Auteur ; Ellen MOSS, Auteur ; Ashley WAZANA, Auteur ; Michael J. MEANEY, Auteur . - 2017 . - p.180-188. Langues : Anglais (eng) in Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry > 58-2 (February 2017) . - p.180-188 Mots-clés : Maternal sensitivity  DRD4  obesity  sex differences Index. décimale : PER Périodiques Résumé : Background Recent evidence suggests that early exposure to low maternal sensitivity is a risk factor for obesity in children and adolescents. A separate line of study shows that the seven-repeat (7R) allele of the dopamine-4 receptor gene (DRD4) increases susceptibility to environmental factors including maternal sensitivity. The current study integrates these lines of work by examining whether preschoolers carrying the 7R allele are more vulnerable to low maternal sensitivity as it relates to overweight/obesity risk. Method The Maternal Adversity Vulnerability and Neurodevelopment (MAVAN) project in Canada was used as the discovery cohort (N = 203), while the Generation R study in the Netherlands was used as a replication sample (N = 270). Regression models to predict both continuous BMI z-scores and membership in any higher BMI category based on established World Health Organization (WHO) cutoffs for 48 months of age were completed. Results In both cohorts, there was a significant maternal sensitivity by DRD4 by sex interaction predicting higher body mass indices and/or obesity risk. As hypothesized, post hoc testing revealed an inverse relationship between maternal sensitivity and body mass indices in 7R allele carriers relative to noncarriers. This finding was strongest in girls in the Canadian cohort and in boys in the Dutch cohort. Conclusions Many children who carry the 7R allele of DRD4 appear to be more influenced by maternal sensitivity as it relates to overweight/obesity risk, consistent with a plasticity effect. Given the relatively small sample sizes available for these analyses, further replications will be needed to confirm and extend these results. En ligne : http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12646 Permalink : https://www.cra-rhone-alpes.org/cid/opac_css/index.php?lvl=notice_display&id=299

Maternal symptoms of depression and sensitivity mediate the relation between maternal history of early adversity and her child temperament: The inheritance of circumstance / Andrée-Anne BOUVETTE-TURCOT in Development and Psychopathology, 32-2 (May 2020)  

Public ISBD [article]  inDevelopment and Psychopathology > 32-2 (May 2020) . - p.605-613 Titre : Maternal symptoms of depression and sensitivity mediate the relation between maternal history of early adversity and her child temperament: The inheritance of circumstance Type de document : texte imprimé Auteurs : Andrée-Anne BOUVETTE-TURCOT, Auteur ; Alison S. FLEMING, Auteur ; Eva UNTERNAEHRER, Auteur ; Andrea GONZALEZ, Auteur ; Leslie ATKINSON, Auteur ; Helene GAUDREAU, Auteur ; Meir STEINER, Auteur ; Michael J. MEANEY, Auteur Article en page(s) : p.605-613 Langues : Anglais (eng) Mots-clés : intergenerational risk transmission  maternal adversity  maternal depression  maternal sensitivity  negative emotionality/behavioral dysregulation Index. décimale : PER Périodiques Résumé : We examined maternal depression and maternal sensitivity as mediators of the association between maternal childhood adversity and her child's temperament in 239 mother-child dyads from a longitudinal, birth cohort study. We used an integrated measure of maternal childhood adversity that included the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire and the Parental Bonding Index. Maternal depression was assessed with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale at 6 months postpartum. Maternal sensitivity was assessed with the Ainsworth maternal sensitivity scales at 6 months. A measure of "negative emotionality/behavioral dysregulation" was derived from the Early Childhood Behaviour Questionnaire administered at 36 months. Bootstrapping-based mediation analyses revealed that maternal depression mediated the effect of maternal childhood adversity on offspring negative emotionality/behavioral dysregulation (95% confidence interval [0.026, 0.144]). We also found a serial, indirect effect of maternal childhood adversity on child negative emotionality/behavioral mediated first by maternal depression and then by maternal sensitivity (95% confidence interval [0.031, 0.156]). Results suggest the intergenerational transmission of the effects of maternal childhood adversity to the offspring occurs through a two-step, serial pathway, involving maternal depression and maternal sensitivity. En ligne : http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579419000488 Permalink : https://www.cra-rhone-alpes.org/cid/opac_css/index.php?lvl=notice_display&id=426 [article] Maternal symptoms of depression and sensitivity mediate the relation between maternal history of early adversity and her child temperament: The inheritance of circumstance [texte imprimé] / Andrée-Anne BOUVETTE-TURCOT, Auteur ; Alison S. FLEMING, Auteur ; Eva UNTERNAEHRER, Auteur ; Andrea GONZALEZ, Auteur ; Leslie ATKINSON, Auteur ; Helene GAUDREAU, Auteur ; Meir STEINER, Auteur ; Michael J. MEANEY, Auteur . - p.605-613. Langues : Anglais (eng) in Development and Psychopathology > 32-2 (May 2020) . - p.605-613 Mots-clés : intergenerational risk transmission  maternal adversity  maternal depression  maternal sensitivity  negative emotionality/behavioral dysregulation Index. décimale : PER Périodiques Résumé : We examined maternal depression and maternal sensitivity as mediators of the association between maternal childhood adversity and her child's temperament in 239 mother-child dyads from a longitudinal, birth cohort study. We used an integrated measure of maternal childhood adversity that included the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire and the Parental Bonding Index. Maternal depression was assessed with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale at 6 months postpartum. Maternal sensitivity was assessed with the Ainsworth maternal sensitivity scales at 6 months. A measure of "negative emotionality/behavioral dysregulation" was derived from the Early Childhood Behaviour Questionnaire administered at 36 months. Bootstrapping-based mediation analyses revealed that maternal depression mediated the effect of maternal childhood adversity on offspring negative emotionality/behavioral dysregulation (95% confidence interval [0.026, 0.144]). We also found a serial, indirect effect of maternal childhood adversity on child negative emotionality/behavioral mediated first by maternal depression and then by maternal sensitivity (95% confidence interval [0.031, 0.156]). Results suggest the intergenerational transmission of the effects of maternal childhood adversity to the offspring occurs through a two-step, serial pathway, involving maternal depression and maternal sensitivity. En ligne : http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579419000488 Permalink : https://www.cra-rhone-alpes.org/cid/opac_css/index.php?lvl=notice_display&id=426

The interplay of birth weight, dopamine receptor D4 gene (DRD4), and early maternal care in the prediction of disorganized attachment at 36 months of age / Ashley WAZANA in Development and Psychopathology, 27-4 (Part 1) (November 2015)  

Public ISBD [article]  inDevelopment and Psychopathology > 27-4 (Part 1) (November 2015) . - p.1145-1161 Titre : The interplay of birth weight, dopamine receptor D4 gene (DRD4), and early maternal care in the prediction of disorganized attachment at 36 months of age Type de document : texte imprimé Auteurs : Ashley WAZANA, Auteur ; Ellen MOSS, Auteur ; Alexis JOLICOEUR-MARTINEAU, Auteur ; Justin GRAFFI, Auteur ; Gal TSABARI, Auteur ; Vanessa LECOMPTE, Auteur ; Katherine PASCUZZO, Auteur ; Vanessa BABINEAU, Auteur ; Cathryn GORDON-GREEN, Auteur ; Viara MILEVA, Auteur ; Leslie ATKINSON, Auteur ; Klaus MINDE, Auteur ; Andrée-Anne BOUVETTE-TURCOT, Auteur ; Roberto SASSI, Auteur ; Martin ST-ANDRÉ, Auteur ; Normand J. CARREY, Auteur ; Stephen MATTHEWS, Auteur ; Marla SOKOLOWSKI, Auteur ; John LYDON, Auteur ; Helene GAUDREAU, Auteur ; Meir STEINER, Auteur ; James L. KENNEDY, Auteur ; Alison S. FLEMING, Auteur ; Robert LEVITAN, Auteur ; Michael J. MEANEY, Auteur Année de publication : 2015 Article en page(s) : p.1145-1161 Langues : Anglais (eng) Index. décimale : PER Périodiques Résumé : Disorganized attachment is an important early risk factor for socioemotional problems throughout childhood and into adulthood. Prevailing models of the etiology of disorganized attachment emphasize the role of highly dysfunctional parenting, to the exclusion of complex models examining the interplay of child and parental factors. Decades of research have established that extreme child birth weight may have long-term effects on developmental processes. These effects are typically negative, but this is not always the case. Recent studies have also identified the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) as a moderator of childrearing effects on the development of disorganized attachment. However, there are inconsistent findings concerning which variant of the polymorphism (seven-repeat long-form allele or non–seven-repeat short-form allele) is most likely to interact with caregiving in predicting disorganized versus organized attachment. In this study, we examined possible two- and three-way interactions and child DRD4 polymorphisms and birth weight and maternal caregiving at age 6 months in longitudinally predicting attachment disorganization at 36 months. Our sample is from the Maternal Adversity, Vulnerability and Neurodevelopment project, a sample of 650 mother–child dyads. Birth weight was cross-referenced with normative data to calculate birth weight percentile. Infant DRD4 was obtained with buccal swabs and categorized according to the presence of the putative allele seven repeat. Macroanalytic and microanalytic measures of maternal behavior were extracted from a videotaped session of 20 min of nonfeeding interaction followed by a 10-min divided attention maternal task at 6 months. Attachment was assessed at 36 months using the Strange Situation procedure, and categorized into disorganized attachment and others. The results indicated that a main effect for DRD4 and a two-way interaction of birth weight and 6-month maternal attention (frequency of maternal looking away behavior) and sensitivity predicted disorganized attachment in robust logistic regression models adjusted for social demographic covariates. Specifically, children in the midrange of birth weight were more likely to develop a disorganized attachment when exposed to less attentive maternal care. However, the association reversed with extreme birth weight (low and high). The DRD4 seven-repeat allele was associated with less disorganized attachment (protective), while non–seven-repeat children were more likely to be classified as disorganized attachment. The implications for understanding inconsistencies in the literature about which DRD4 genotype is the risk direction are also considered. Suggestions for intervention with families with infants at different levels of biological risk and caregiving risk are also discussed. En ligne : http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415000735 Permalink : https://www.cra-rhone-alpes.org/cid/opac_css/index.php?lvl=notice_display&id=268 [article] The interplay of birth weight, dopamine receptor D4 gene (DRD4), and early maternal care in the prediction of disorganized attachment at 36 months of age [texte imprimé] / Ashley WAZANA, Auteur ; Ellen MOSS, Auteur ; Alexis JOLICOEUR-MARTINEAU, Auteur ; Justin GRAFFI, Auteur ; Gal TSABARI, Auteur ; Vanessa LECOMPTE, Auteur ; Katherine PASCUZZO, Auteur ; Vanessa BABINEAU, Auteur ; Cathryn GORDON-GREEN, Auteur ; Viara MILEVA, Auteur ; Leslie ATKINSON, Auteur ; Klaus MINDE, Auteur ; Andrée-Anne BOUVETTE-TURCOT, Auteur ; Roberto SASSI, Auteur ; Martin ST-ANDRÉ, Auteur ; Normand J. CARREY, Auteur ; Stephen MATTHEWS, Auteur ; Marla SOKOLOWSKI, Auteur ; John LYDON, Auteur ; Helene GAUDREAU, Auteur ; Meir STEINER, Auteur ; James L. KENNEDY, Auteur ; Alison S. FLEMING, Auteur ; Robert LEVITAN, Auteur ; Michael J. MEANEY, Auteur . - 2015 . - p.1145-1161. Langues : Anglais (eng) in Development and Psychopathology > 27-4 (Part 1) (November 2015) . - p.1145-1161 Index. décimale : PER Périodiques Résumé : Disorganized attachment is an important early risk factor for socioemotional problems throughout childhood and into adulthood. Prevailing models of the etiology of disorganized attachment emphasize the role of highly dysfunctional parenting, to the exclusion of complex models examining the interplay of child and parental factors. Decades of research have established that extreme child birth weight may have long-term effects on developmental processes. These effects are typically negative, but this is not always the case. Recent studies have also identified the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) as a moderator of childrearing effects on the development of disorganized attachment. However, there are inconsistent findings concerning which variant of the polymorphism (seven-repeat long-form allele or non–seven-repeat short-form allele) is most likely to interact with caregiving in predicting disorganized versus organized attachment. In this study, we examined possible two- and three-way interactions and child DRD4 polymorphisms and birth weight and maternal caregiving at age 6 months in longitudinally predicting attachment disorganization at 36 months. Our sample is from the Maternal Adversity, Vulnerability and Neurodevelopment project, a sample of 650 mother–child dyads. Birth weight was cross-referenced with normative data to calculate birth weight percentile. Infant DRD4 was obtained with buccal swabs and categorized according to the presence of the putative allele seven repeat. Macroanalytic and microanalytic measures of maternal behavior were extracted from a videotaped session of 20 min of nonfeeding interaction followed by a 10-min divided attention maternal task at 6 months. Attachment was assessed at 36 months using the Strange Situation procedure, and categorized into disorganized attachment and others. The results indicated that a main effect for DRD4 and a two-way interaction of birth weight and 6-month maternal attention (frequency of maternal looking away behavior) and sensitivity predicted disorganized attachment in robust logistic regression models adjusted for social demographic covariates. Specifically, children in the midrange of birth weight were more likely to develop a disorganized attachment when exposed to less attentive maternal care. However, the association reversed with extreme birth weight (low and high). The DRD4 seven-repeat allele was associated with less disorganized attachment (protective), while non–seven-repeat children were more likely to be classified as disorganized attachment. The implications for understanding inconsistencies in the literature about which DRD4 genotype is the risk direction are also considered. Suggestions for intervention with families with infants at different levels of biological risk and caregiving risk are also discussed. En ligne : http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415000735 Permalink : https://www.cra-rhone-alpes.org/cid/opac_css/index.php?lvl=notice_display&id=268

Using cross-species comparisons and a neurobiological framework to understand early social deprivation effects on behavioral development / Zoë H. BRETT in Development and Psychopathology, 27-2 (May 2015)  

Public ISBD [article]  inDevelopment and Psychopathology > 27-2 (May 2015) . - p.347-367 Titre : Using cross-species comparisons and a neurobiological framework to understand early social deprivation effects on behavioral development Type de document : texte imprimé Auteurs : Zoë H. BRETT, Auteur ; Kathryn L. HUMPHREYS, Auteur ; Alison S. FLEMING, Auteur ; Gary W. KRAEMER, Auteur ; Stacy S. DRURY, Auteur Article en page(s) : p.347-367 Langues : Anglais (eng) Index. décimale : PER Périodiques Résumé : Building upon the transactional model of brain development, we explore the impact of early maternal deprivation on neural development and plasticity in three neural systems: hyperactivity/impulsivity, executive function, and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis functioning across rodent, nonhuman primate, and human studies. Recognizing the complexity of early maternal–infant interactions, we limit our cross-species comparisons to data from rodent models of artificial rearing, nonhuman primate studies of peer rearing, and the relations between these two experimental approaches and human studies of children exposed to the early severe psychosocial deprivation associated with institutional care. In addition to discussing the strengths and limitations of these paradigms, we present the current state of research on the neurobiological impact of early maternal deprivation and the evidence of sensitive periods, noting methodological challenges. Integrating data across preclinical animal models and human studies, we speculate about the underlying biological mechanisms; the differential impact of deprivation due to temporal factors including onset, offset, and duration of the exposure; and the possibility and consequences of reopening of sensitive periods during adolescence. En ligne : http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415000036 Permalink : https://www.cra-rhone-alpes.org/cid/opac_css/index.php?lvl=notice_display&id=257 [article] Using cross-species comparisons and a neurobiological framework to understand early social deprivation effects on behavioral development [texte imprimé] / Zoë H. BRETT, Auteur ; Kathryn L. HUMPHREYS, Auteur ; Alison S. FLEMING, Auteur ; Gary W. KRAEMER, Auteur ; Stacy S. DRURY, Auteur . - p.347-367. Langues : Anglais (eng) in Development and Psychopathology > 27-2 (May 2015) . - p.347-367 Index. décimale : PER Périodiques Résumé : Building upon the transactional model of brain development, we explore the impact of early maternal deprivation on neural development and plasticity in three neural systems: hyperactivity/impulsivity, executive function, and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis functioning across rodent, nonhuman primate, and human studies. Recognizing the complexity of early maternal–infant interactions, we limit our cross-species comparisons to data from rodent models of artificial rearing, nonhuman primate studies of peer rearing, and the relations between these two experimental approaches and human studies of children exposed to the early severe psychosocial deprivation associated with institutional care. In addition to discussing the strengths and limitations of these paradigms, we present the current state of research on the neurobiological impact of early maternal deprivation and the evidence of sensitive periods, noting methodological challenges. Integrating data across preclinical animal models and human studies, we speculate about the underlying biological mechanisms; the differential impact of deprivation due to temporal factors including onset, offset, and duration of the exposure; and the possibility and consequences of reopening of sensitive periods during adolescence. En ligne : http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415000036 Permalink : https://www.cra-rhone-alpes.org/cid/opac_css/index.php?lvl=notice_display&id=257

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