1. Esanov R, Andrade NS, Bennison S, Wahlestedt C, Zeier Z. {{The FMR1 promoter is selectively hydroxymethylated in primary neurons of Fragile X Syndrome patients}}. {Hum Mol Genet};2016 (Sep 5)
Fragile X syndrome (FXS) results from a repeat expansion mutation near the FMR1 gene promoter and is the most common form of heritable intellectual disability and autism. Full mutations larger than 200 CGG repeats trigger FMR1 heterochromatinization and loss of gene expression, which is primarily responsible for the pathological features of FXS (1). In contrast, smaller pre-mutations of 55-200 CGG are associated with FMR1 overexpression and Fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome (FXTAS), a late-onset neurodegenerative condition (2). While the role of 5-methylcytosine (5mC) in FMR1 gene silencing has been studied extensively, the role of 5-hydroxymethylation (5hmC), a newly discovered epigenetic mark produced through active DNA demethylation, has not been previously investigated in FXS neurons. Here, we used two complementary epigenetic assays, 5hmC sensitive restriction digest and TET-assisted bisulfite pyrosequencing, to quantify FMR1 5mC and 5hmC levels. We observed increased levels of 5hmC at the FMR1 promoter in FXS patient brains with full-mutations relative to pre-mutation carriers and unaffected controls. In addition, we found that 5hmC enrichment at the FMR1 locus in FXS cells is specific to neurons by utilizing a nuclei sorting technique to separate neuronal and glial DNA fractions from post-mortem brain tissues. This FMR1 5hmC enrichment was not present in cellular models of FXS including fibroblasts, lymphocytes and reprogrammed neurons, indicating they do not fully recapitulate this epigenetic feature of disease. Future studies could investigate the potential to leverage this epigenetic pathway to restore FMR1 expression and discern whether levels of 5hmC correlate with phenotypic severity.
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2. Slattery J, MacFabe DF, Kahler SG, Frye RE. {{Enteric Ecosystem Disruption in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Can the Microbiota and Macrobiota be Restored?}}. {Curr Pharm Des};2016 (Sep 5)
BACKGROUND: Many lines of scientific research suggest that Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) may be associated with alterations in the enteric ecosystem, including alterations of the enteric macrobiome (i.e. helminthes and fungi) and changes in predominant microbiome species, particularly a reduction in microbiome diversity. METHODS: We performed and comprehensive review of the literature and summarized the major findings. RESULTS: These alterations are believed to be due to a variety of factors including changes in the post-industrial society related to decreased exposure to symbiotic organisms, increased human migration, overuse of antibiotics and changes in dietary habits. Changes in the enteric ecosystem are believed to alter metabolic and immune system function and epigenetic regulation. If these changes occur during critical developmental windows, the trajectory of brain development, as well as brain function, can be altered. This paper reviews theoretical models that explain how these perturbations may in isolation or in combination be causative for ASDs as well as the preclinical and clinical studies that support these models. We discuss how these alterations may converge to trigger or exacerbate the formation of an ASD phenotype. We focus on possible preconception, prenatal, perinatal and postnatal factors that may alter the enteric ecosystem leading to physiological disruptions, potentially through triggering events. CONCLUSION: If these theoretical models prove to be valid, they may lead to the development of practical interventions which could decrease ASD prevalence and/or morbidity.
