1. Abdulamir HA, Abdul-Rasheed OF, Abdulghani EA. {{Low oxytocin and melatonin levels and their possible role in the diagnosis and prognosis in Iraqi autistic children}}. {Saudi Med J}. 2016; 37(1): 29-36.
OBJECTIVES: To test the possible association between oxytocin and melatonin levels with the severity of social and cognitive dysfunctions, and to study the correlation between these parameters in children with autism. METHODS: A case-control study was carried out in the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Al-Nahrain University, Baghdad, Iraq. The study was performed on 60 male autistic patients recruited from the Pediatric Department of Al-Sader General Hospital, Baghdad, Iraq between November 2014 and April 2015. The levels of oxytocin and melatonin were measured in the serum of these autistic male patients, and categorized as mild, moderate, and severe (20 patients each), and was compared with 26 age- and gender-matched control subjects. RESULTS: The data indicated that the levels of oxytocin (44.72 +/- 36.1 muIU/mL) and melatonin in patients (23.08 +/- 10.41 pg/mL) were significantly lower (p less than 0.05) than that of age-matched (102.1 +/- 34.31 muIU/mL) and gender-matched controls (53.05 +/- 38.38 pg/mL). These parameters were remarkably associated with the severity of the disease that was indicated by the significant decrease in the levels of oxytocin (47 +/- 25.47 muIU/mL) and melatonin in moderate (20 +/- 6.14 pg/mL), and patients with severe oxytocin (27.92 +/- 10.23 muIU/mL) and patients with severe melatonin (21.69 +/- 7.02 pg/mL) when compared with mild autistic patients with oxytocin (59.22 +/- 27.32 muIU/mL) and melatonin (27.55 +/- 14.71 pg/mL). These 2 parameters showed a significant positive correlation with each other in moderate (r=0.513; p=0.021), and severe patients (r=0.598; p=0.005). CONCLUSION: Receiver operating characteristic analysis revealed that oxytocin can be considered as a good diagnostic marker in severe autistic patients while melatonin can be considered as a good diagnostic marker in all autistic subgroups. This study proves the possibility of using oxytocin and melatonin in the diagnosis, and as markers of autism severity.
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2. Adams DJ, Susi A, Erdie-Lalena CR, Gorman G, Hisle-Gorman E, Rajnik M, Elrod M, Nylund CM. {{Otitis Media and Related Complications Among Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders}}. {J Autism Dev Disord}. 2016.
Acute otitis media (AOM) symptoms can be masked by communication deficits, common to children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). We sought to evaluate the association between ASD and otitis media. Using ICD-9-CM diagnostic codes, we performed a retrospective case-cohort study comparing AOM, and otitis-related diagnoses among children with and without ASD. Children with ASD had a significantly increased rate of AOM, otitis media with effusion, otorrhea, and PE tube placement. Children with ASD were more than twice as likely to develop mastoiditis, and to undergo mastoidectomy and tympanoplasty. Children with ASD are more likely to have middle ear infections and otitis-related complications, highlighting the importance of routine middle ear examinations and close attention to hearing impairment in this population.
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3. Bishop SL, Havdahl KA, Huerta M, Lord C. {{Subdimensions of social-communication impairment in autism spectrum disorder}}. {J Child Psychol Psychiatry}. 2016.
BACKGROUND: More refined dimensions of social-communication impairment are needed to elucidate the clinical and biological boundaries of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and other childhood onset psychiatric disorders associated with social difficulties, as well as to facilitate investigations in treatment and long-term outcomes of these disorders. METHODS: This study was intended to identify separable dimensions of clinician-observed social-communication impairments by examining scores on a widely used autism diagnostic instrument. Participants included verbally fluent children ages 3-13 years, who were given a clinical diagnosis of ASD (n = 120) or non-ASD (i.e. ADHD, language disorder, intellectual disability, mood or anxiety disorder; n = 118) following a comprehensive diagnostic assessment. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis examined the factor structure of algorithm items from the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS), Module 3. RESULTS: Results indicated that a three-factor model consisting of repetitive behaviors and two separate social-communication behavior factors had superior fit compared to a two-factor model that included repetitive behaviors and one social-communication behavior factor. In the three-factor model, impairments in ‘Basic Social-Communication’ behaviors (e.g. eye contact, facial expressions, gestures) were separated from impairments in ‘Interaction quality.’ Confirmatory factor analysis in an independent sample of children in the Simons Simplex Collection (SSC) further supported the division of social-communication impairments into these two factors. Scores in Interaction Quality were significantly associated with nonverbal IQ and male sex in the ASD group, and with age in the non-ASD group, while scores in basic social communication were not significantly associated with any of these child characteristics in either diagnostic group. CONCLUSIONS: Efforts to conceptualize level, or severity, of social-communication impairment in children with neurodevelopmental disorders might be facilitated by separating the most basic (or proximal) social-communication impairments from those that could arise from a range of other phenotypic variables. Identification of social-communication subdimensions also highlights potential avenues for measuring different types of social-communication impairments for different purposes (e.g. for differential diagnosis vs. response to treatment).
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4. Chen M, Zhao M, Lee CG, Chong SS. {{Identification of microsatellite markers <1 Mb from the FMR1 CGG repeat and development of a single-tube tetradecaplex PCR panel of highly polymorphic markers for preimplantation genetic diagnosis of fragile X syndrome}}. {Genet Med}. 2016. PURPOSE: To develop a single-tube polymerase chain reaction (PCR) panel of highly polymorphic markers for preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) of fragile X syndrome (FXS). METHODS: An in silico search was performed to identify all markers within 1 Mb flanking the FMR1 gene. Selected markers were optimized into a single-tube PCR panel and their polymorphism indices were determined from 272 female samples from three populations. The single-tube assay was also validated on 30 single cells to evaluate its applicability to FXS PGD. RESULTS: Thirteen markers with potentially high polymorphism information content (PIC) and heterozygosity values were selected and optimized into a single-tube PCR panel together with AMELX/Y for gender determination. Analysis of 272 female samples confirmed the high polymorphism (PIC > 0.5) of most markers, with expected and observed heterozygosities ranging from 0.31 to 0.87. More than 99% of individuals were heterozygous for at least three markers, with 95.8% of individuals heterozygous for at least two markers on either side of the FMR1 CGG repeat. CONCLUSION: The tetradecaplex marker assay can be performed directly on single cells or after whole-genome amplification, thus supporting its use in FXS PGD either as a standalone linkage-based assay or as a complement to FMR1 mutation detection.Genet Med advance online publication 07 January 2016Genetics in Medicine (2016); doi:10.1038/gim.2015.185.
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5. Daaleman TP. {{Primary Care of Adults with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities}}. {South Med J}. 2016; 109(1): 12-6.
Most adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities receive care through primary care providers in their communities. An interdisciplinary approach that incorporates home- and community-based services is effective and can be facilitated by care managers in a medical home model. Preventive services should follow established guidelines as in the general population with some modifications, including regular monitoring of weight and height. Swallowing difficulties and gastroesophageal reflux disease are not uncommon and increase the risk for respiratory disorders. A medication review should be conducted at regular intervals to check for polypharmacy, and antipsychotic drugs should no longer be used routinely to treat problem behaviors. Pain and other physical symptoms often are unrecognized and can present atypically in acute situations.
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6. Dawson G, Rice CE. {{The Complex Etiology of Autism Presents Challenges in Risk Communication}}. {Pediatrics}. 2016.
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7. de Schipper E, Mahdi S, de Vries P, Granlund M, Holtmann M, Karande S, Almodayfer O, Shulman C, Tonge B, Wong VV, Zwaigenbaum L, Bolte S. {{Functioning and disability in autism spectrum disorder: A worldwide survey of experts}}. {Autism Res}. 2016.
OBJECTIVE: This study is the second of four to prepare International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF; and Children and Youth version, ICF(-CY)) Core Sets for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).The objective of this study was to survey the opinions and experiences of international experts on functioning and disability in ASD. METHODS: Using a protocol stipulated by the World Health Organization (WHO) and monitored by the ICF Research Branch, an email-based questionnaire was circulated worldwide among ASD experts, and meaningful functional ability and disability concepts were extracted from their responses. These concepts were then linked to the ICF(-CY) by two independent researchers using a standardized linking procedure. RESULTS: N = 225 experts from 10 different disciplines and all six WHO-regions completed the survey. Meaningful concepts from the responses were linked to 210 ICF(-CY) categories. Of these, 103 categories were considered most relevant to ASD (i.e., identified by at least 5% of the experts), of which 37 were related to Activities and Participation, 35 to Body functions, 22 to Environmental factors, and 9 to Body structures. A variety of personal characteristics and ASD-related functioning skills were provided by experts, including honesty, loyalty, attention to detail and creative talents. Reported gender differences in ASD comprised more externalizing behaviors among males and more internalizing behaviors in females. CONCLUSION: The ICF(-CY) categories derived from international expert opinions indicate that the impact of ASD on functioning extends far beyond core symptom domains. Autism Res 2016. (c) 2016 The Authors Autism Research published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of International Society for Autism Research.
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8. Farmer CA, Kaat AJ, Mazurek MO, Lainhart JE, DeWitt MB, Cook EH, Butter EM, Aman MG. {{Confirmation of the Factor Structure and Measurement Invariance of the Children’s Scale of Hostility and Aggression: Reactive/Proactive in Clinic-Referred Children with and without Autism Spectrum Disorder}}. {J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol}. 2016.
OBJECTIVE: The measurement of aggression in its different forms (e.g., physical and verbal) and functions (e.g., impulsive and instrumental) is given little attention in subjects with developmental disabilities (DD). In this study, we confirm the factor structure of the Children’s Scale for Hostility and Aggression: Reactive/Proactive (C-SHARP) and demonstrate measurement invariance (consistent performance across clinical groups) between clinic-referred groups with and without autism spectrum disorder (ASD). We also provide evidence of the construct validity of the C-SHARP. METHODS: Caregivers provided C-SHARP, Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), and Proactive/Reactive Rating Scale (PRRS) ratings for 644 children, adolescents, and young adults 2-21 years of age. Five types of measurement invariance were evaluated within a confirmatory factor analytic framework. Associations among the C-SHARP, CBCL, and PRRS were explored. RESULTS: The factor structure of the C-SHARP had a good fit to the data from both groups, and strict measurement invariance between ASD and non-ASD groups was demonstrated (i.e., equivalent structure, factor loadings, item intercepts and residuals, and latent variance/covariance between groups). The C-SHARP Problem Scale was more strongly associated with CBCL Externalizing than with CBCL Internalizing, supporting its construct validity. Subjects classified with the PRRS as both Reactive and Proactive had significantly higher C-SHARP Proactive Scores than those classified as Reactive only, who were rated significantly higher than those classified by the PRRS as Neither Reactive nor Proactive. A similar pattern was observed for the C-SHARP Reactive Score. CONCLUSIONS: This study provided evidence of the validity of the C-SHARP through confirmation of its factor structure and its relationship with more established scales. The demonstration of measurement invariance demonstrates that differences in C-SHARP factor scores were the result of differences in the construct rather than to error or unmeasured/nuisance variables. These data suggest that the C-SHARP is useful for quantifying subtypes of aggressive behavior in children, adolescents, and young adults with DD.
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9. Gidaya NB, Lee BK, Burstyn I, Michael Y, Newschaffer CJ, Mortensen EL. {{In utero Exposure to beta-2-Adrenergic Receptor Agonist Drugs and Risk for Autism Spectrum Disorders}}. {Pediatrics}. 2016.
OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to investigate associations between use of beta-2-adrenergic receptor (B2AR) agonist drugs during pregnancy and risk for autism spectrum disorders (ASD). METHODS: A case-control study was conducted by using Denmark’s health and population registers. Among children born between 1997 and 2006, 5200 cases with ASD admission diagnoses and 52 000 controls without ASD were identified and individually matched on month and year of birth. Conditional logistic regression models were used to estimate odds ratios (OR) and confidence intervals (CI) for any B2AR agonist exposure during pregnancy, preconception, and by trimester. RESULTS: In total, 3.7% of cases and 2.9% of controls were exposed to B2ARs during pregnancy. Use of B2ARs during pregnancy was associated with increased risk of ASD, even after adjustment for maternal asthma and other covariates (OR: 1.3, 95% CI: 1.1-1.5). The elevated risk was observed with use of B2AR during preconception (OR: 1.3, 95% CI: 1.0-1.6), first trimester (OR: 1.3, 95% CI: 1.1-1.5), second trimester (OR: 1.5, 95% CI: 1.1-1.7), and the third trimester (OR: 1.4, 95% CI: 1.1-1.7). There was some evidence that longer B2AR within-pregnancy use was associated with the increased risk. CONCLUSIONS: B2AR agonist exposure during pregnancy may be associated with an increased risk for ASD. If the effect is real, any intervention must be balanced against benefits of indicated medication use by pregnant women.
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10. Green J, Leadbitter K, Kay C, Sharma K. {{Autism Spectrum Disorder in Children Adopted After Early Care Breakdown}}. {J Autism Dev Disord}. 2016.
Syndromic autism has been described in children adopted after orphanage rearing. We investigated whether the same existed in children adopted after family breakdown. Families of 54/60 adopted children aged 6-11 years (mean 102 months; SD 20; 45 % male) returned screening questionnaires for autism spectrum disorder (ASD); 21/54 (39 %) screened positive. Detailed in-person phenotyping of screen positive cases showed ASD in 6/54 (11 %), Broad ASD (sub threshold traits) in 10/54 (18.5 %); 5/54 (9 %) screened false positive. The ASD group showed impairments across both social communication and restrictive repetitive behaviour domains, Broad ASD was more mixed. These rates, much higher than population prevalence, are comparable with institutionalised samples. There are implications for developmental science, and assessment, treatment and policy for adopted children.
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11. Lopes F, Barbosa M, Ameur A, Soares G, de Sa J, Dias AI, Oliveira G, Cabral P, Temudo T, Calado E, Cruz IF, Vieira JP, Oliveira R, Esteves S, Sauer S, Jonasson I, Syvanen AC, Gyllensten U, Pinto D, Maciel P. {{Identification of novel genetic causes of Rett syndrome-like phenotypes}}. {J Med Genet}. 2016.
BACKGROUND: The aim of this work was to identify new genetic causes of Rett-like phenotypes using array comparative genomic hybridisation and a whole exome sequencing approach. METHODS AND RESULTS: We studied a cohort of 19 Portuguese patients (16 girls, 3 boys) with a clinical presentation significantly overlapping Rett syndrome (RTT). Genetic analysis included filtering of the single nucleotide variants and indels with preference for de novo, homozygous/compound heterozygous, or maternally inherited X linked variants. Examination by MRI and muscle biopsies was also performed. Pathogenic genomic imbalances were found in two patients (10.5%): an 18q21.2 deletion encompassing four exons of the TCF4 gene and a mosaic UPD of chromosome 3. Variants in genes previously implicated in neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD) were identified in six patients (32%): de novo variants in EEF1A2, STXBP1 and ZNF238 were found in three patients, maternally inherited X linked variants in SLC35A2, ZFX and SHROOM4 were detected in two male patients and one homozygous variant in EIF2B2 was detected in one patient. Variants were also detected in five novel NDD candidate genes (26%): we identified de novo variants in the RHOBTB2, SMARCA1 and GABBR2 genes; a homozygous variant in EIF4G1; compound heterozygous variant in HTT. CONCLUSIONS: Network analysis reveals that these genes interact by means of protein interactions with each other and with the known RTT genes. These findings expand the phenotypical spectrum of previously known NDD genes to encompass RTT-like clinical presentations and identify new candidate genes for RTT-like phenotypes.
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12. Mitchell DB, Szczerepa A, Hauser-Cram P. {{Spilling over: Partner parenting stress as a predictor of family cohesion in parents of adolescents with developmental disabilities}}. {Res Dev Disabil}. 2015; 49-50: 258-67.
Family cohesion relates to positive outcomes for both parents and children. Maintaining cohesion may be especially challenging for families of adolescents with developmental disabilities, yet this has been studied infrequently in this group. We investigated cohesion in these families, particularly with respect to partner stress, using the notion of the ‘spillover effect’ as a model. Adolescents with disabilities and their parents participated. Parents reported on teen adaptive and problem behaviours and on marital satisfaction, parenting stress, and family cohesion. The stress of one partner was tested as a predictor of the quality of family cohesion reported by the other. Adolescent behaviour problems were negative predictors of family cohesion in mothers, and marital satisfaction positively predicted cohesion for both parents. Above other factors, greater partner stress predicted poorer family cohesion for both fathers and mothers. Marital satisfaction acted as a suppressor of this relation. To improve the overall climate of families, care providers should take into consideration individual relationships, including the marital relationship. In addition, the possibility of spillover from one individual to another should be recognized as a factor in family functioning. Family-centred practices are likely to lead to greater feelings of cohesion and overall better individual and family well-being.
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13. Mostafa GA, Bjorklund G, Urbina MA, Al-Ayadhi LY. {{The levels of blood mercury and inflammatory-related neuropeptides in the serum are correlated in children with autism spectrum disorder}}. {Metab Brain Dis}. 2016.
Tachykinins (substance P, neurokinin A, and neurokinin B) are pro-inflammatory neuropeptides that may play an important role in some autoimmune neuroinflammatory diseases, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Mercury (Hg) is a neurotoxicant, and potentially one of the main environmental triggers for ASD as it induces neuroinflammation with a subsequent release of neuropeptides. This is the first study to explore the potentially causal relationship between levels of serum neurokinin A and blood mercury (BHg) in children with ASD. Levels of serum neurokinin A and BHg were measured in 84 children with ASD, aged between 3 and 10 years, and 84 healthy-matched children. There was a positive linear relationship between the Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) and both serum neurokinin A and BHg. ASD children had significantly higher levels of serum neurokinin A than healthy controls (P < 0.001). Increased levels of serum neurokinin A and BHg were respectively found in 54.8 % and 42.9 % of the two groups. There was significant and positive linear relationship between levels of serum neurokinin A and BHg in children with moderate and severe ASD, but not in healthy control children. It was found that 78.3 % of the ASD patients with increased serum levels of neurokinin A had elevated BHg levels (P < 0.001). Neuroinflammation, with increased levels of neurokinin A, is seen in some children with ASD, and may be caused by elevated BHg levels. Further research is recommended to determine the pathogenic role of increased levels of serum neurokinin A and BHg in ASD. The therapeutic role of tachykinin receptor antagonists, a potential new class of anti-inflammatory medications, and Hg chelators, should also be studied in ASD. Lien vers le texte intégral (Open Access ou abonnement)
14. O’Reilly M, Lester JN, Muskett T. {{Erratum to: Discourse/Conversation Analysis and Autism Spectrum Disorder}}. {J Autism Dev Disord}. 2016.
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15. Shirama A, Kanai C, Kato N, Kashino M. {{Ocular Fixation Abnormality in Patients with Autism Spectrum Disorder}}. {J Autism Dev Disord}. 2016.
We examined the factors that influence ocular fixation control in adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) including sensory information, individuals’ motor characteristics, and inhibitory control. The ASD group showed difficulty in maintaining fixation especially when there was no fixation target. The fixational eye movement characteristics of individuals were consistent regardless of the presence or absence of a fixation target in the controls, but not in the ASD group. Additionally, fixation stability did not correlate with an ability to suppress reflexive saccades measured by an antisaccade task. These findings suggest that ASD adults have deficits in converting alternative sensory information, such as retinal signals in the peripheral visual field or extraretinal signals, to motor commands when the foveal information is unavailable.
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16. Soueid J, Kourtian S, Makhoul NJ, Makoukji J, Haddad S, Ghanem SS, Kobeissy F, Boustany RM. {{RYR2, PTDSS1 and AREG genes are implicated in a Lebanese population-based study of copy number variation in autism}}. {Sci Rep}. 2016; 6: 19088.
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) are a group of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by ritualistic-repetitive behaviors and impaired verbal and non-verbal communication. Objectives were to determine the contribution of genetic variation to ASDs in the Lebanese. Affymetrix Cytogenetics Whole-Genome 2.7 M and CytoScan() HD Arrays were used to detect CNVs in 41 Lebanese autistic children and 35 non-autistic, developmentally delayed and intellectually disabled patients. 33 normal participants were used as controls. 16 de novo CNVs and 57 inherited CNVs, including recognized pathogenic 16p11.2 duplications and 2p16.3 deletions were identified. A duplication at 1q43 classified as likely pathogenic encompasses RYR2 as a potential ASD candidate gene. This previously identified CNV has been classified as both pathogenic, and, of uncertain significance. A duplication of unknown significance at 10q11.22, proposed as a modulator for phenotypic disease expression in Rett syndrome, was also identified. The novel potential autism susceptibility genes PTDSS1 and AREG were uncovered and warrant further genetic and functional analyses. Previously described and novel genetic targets in ASD were identified in Lebanese families with autism. These findings may lead to improved diagnosis of ASDs and informed genetic counseling, and may also lead to untapped therapeutic targets applicable to Lebanese and non-Lebanese patients.
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17. Weichbrod RH, Blanks S, Plemons T, Mallon D, Chinchilla J, Linde NS, Drake JB, Raber JM. {{Untapped Potential: Animal care and use programs adopt alternative training and recruitment strategies for individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities}}. {Lab Animal Sci Prof}. 2015; 3(4): 12-20.
18. Yetkin U, Karakas N, Balkanay M, Gurbuz A. {{Importance of anatomic variations in secundum ASD: residual ASD detected on postoperative 31st year}}. {J Cardiothorac Surg}. 2015; 10 Suppl 1: A225.
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19. Zaal-Schuller IH, de Vos MA, Ewals FV, van Goudoever JB, Willems DL. {{End-of-life decision-making for children with severe developmental disabilities: The parental perspective}}. {Res Dev Disabil}. 2015; 49-50: 235-46.
BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The objectives of this integrative review were to understand how parents of children with severe developmental disorders experience their involvement in end-of-life decision-making, how they prefer to be involved and what factors influence their decisions. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL and PsycINFO. The search was limited to articles in English or Dutch published between January 2004 and August 2014. We included qualitative and quantitative original studies that directly investigated the experiences of parents of children aged 0-18 years with severe developmental disorders for whom an end-of-life decision had been considered or made. OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: We identified nine studies that met all inclusion criteria. Reportedly, parental involvement in end-of-life decision-making varied widely, ranging from having no involvement to being the sole decision-maker. Most parents preferred to actively share in the decision-making process regardless of their child’s specific diagnosis or comorbidity. The main factors that influenced parents in their decision-making were: their strong urge to advocate for their child’s best interests and to make the best (possible) decision. In addition, parents felt influenced by their child’s visible suffering, remaining quality of life and the will they perceived in their child to survive. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Most parents of children with severe developmental disorders wish to actively share in the end-of-life decision-making process. An important emerging factor in this process is the parents’ feeling that they have to stand up for their child’s interests in conversations with the medical team.
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20. Zatkova M, Bakos J, Hodosy J, Ostatnikova D. {{Synapse alterations in autism: Review of animal model findings}}. {Biomed Pap Med Fac Univ Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub}. 2016.
BACKGROUND: Recent research has produced an explosion of experimental data on the complex neurobiological mechanisms of developmental disorders including autism. Animal models are one approach to studying the phenotypic features and molecular basis of autism. In this review, we describe progress in understanding synaptogenesis and alterations to this process with special emphasis on the cell adhesion molecules and scaffolding proteins implicated in autism. Genetic mouse model experiments are discussed in relation to alterations to selected synaptic proteins and consequent behavioral deficits measured in animal experiments. METHODS: Pubmed databases were used to search for original and review articles on animal and human clinical studies on autism. RESULTS: The cell adhesion molecules, neurexin, neurolignin and the Shank family of proteins are important molecular targets associated with autism. CONCLUSION: The heterogeneity of the autism spectrum of disorders limits interpretation of information acquired from any single animal model or animal test. We showed synapse-specific/ model-specific defects associated with a given genotype in these models. Characterization of mouse models with genetic variations may help study the mechanisms of autism in humans. However, it will be necessary to apply new analytic paradigms in using genetically modified mice for understanding autism etiology in humans. Further studies are needed to create animal models with mutations that match the molecular and neural bases of autism.
