1. Afarinesh MR, Ahmadi BBM, Sabzalizadeh M, Sheibani V. Response Characteristics of Barrel Cortical Neurons in Layers IV/V of Juvenile Rats with Autism-Like Traits after Tactile Stimulation. Physiol Behav;2025 (Sep 5):115093.

The barrel cortex is a specialized region of the primary somatosensory cortex that processes tactile information from whiskers. This study investigates how tactile stimulation (TS) affects excitatory receptive fields and surrounds suppression in barrel cortex neurons of male and female autistic-like rats, using various whisker displacement protocols. The animals were categorized into control, Valproic acid pre-treated (Val), and Val-TS treatment groups. In male Val-TS rats, TS reduced layer IV ON/OFF amplitudes for principal and adjacent whisker displacements, while only OFF response latency to principal whisker displacement decreased. In females, Val group showed increased ON/OFF amplitudes, which decreased in Val-TS, returning to control levels. ON/OFF response latency to principal whisker displacement increased in Val-TS, returning to control. Tactile stimulation more effectively remodeled receptive fields and temporal timing in female barrel cortex. In layer V, male Val-TS rats showed no significant amplitude differences but decreased ON/OFF latencies to principal whisker displacement. Adjacent whisker responses were largely unchanged. In females, Val-TS rats had increased ON/OFF amplitudes to principal whisker displacement, but no latency changes. Adjacent whisker responses showed amplitude and latency differences, suggesting receptive-field expansion and remodeling. In terms of inhibitory responses, conditioning test (CT) ratio analysis indicated significant group effects for both ON and OFF responses in layer IV, with the Val-TS group showing higher CT-ratios than the Val and control groups for both sexes. Layer V responses indicated similar trends, with elevated CT-ratios in male rats under Val-TS conditions, whereas females did not show significant differences. Overall, these findings reveal distinct variations in responses of the barrel cortex neurons based on sex and treatment conditions, emphasizing the nuanced impact of interventions on neuronal responsiveness. This research enhances our understanding of sex-dependent neural adaptations and their implications for sensory processing and neuroplasticity in response to external stimuli.

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2. Baczewski L, Campos L, Lee J, Wu Nordahl C, van der Miesen AIR, McClellan LS, Parwani S, Tishelman A, Song M, Strang JF. Gender Identity and Gender-Related Medical Outcomes of Autistic Young Adults Who Experienced Transgender Identity as Adolescents. Transgend Health;2025 (Sep);10(4):345-354.

PURPOSE: We examined gender identity and gender-affirming care outcomes of autistic transgender adolescents followed into young adulthood, as well as relationships between gender-related medical care receipt and mental health across time. METHODS: This longitudinal two-timepoint study was conducted between 2018 and 2024, with 4 years between timepoints. Twenty-seven autistic transgender youth participated, with one lost to follow-up. Measures included self-reported gender, interest in and receipt of gender-related medical care, LGBT-related stigma (via the LGBT Stigma Scale), and anxiety and depression symptoms (via the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment). Intelligence quotients were estimated using the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence-2. We employed data visualization of gender and gender-related care trajectories and multiple linear regression to understand the relationships between care trajectories and mental health. RESULTS: Most youth remained gender-diverse at Time 2. Two of 26 identified as cisgender as young adults. Half of the sample moved toward nonbinary identities either as an additional component to a binary identity (e.g., transgender nonbinary woman) or shifted from a binary identity to a nonbinary identity. For those who wanted gender-related care, earlier care receipt was associated with a significant reduction in anxiety across time. Care timing was not significantly related to changes in depression across time. CONCLUSION: A majority of autistic gender-diverse youth (24/26; 92.3%) remained gender diverse into young adulthood. Unlike previous studies of autistic youth entering adulthood, which report worsening mental health, participants showed reductions in anxiety across time. Earlier receipt of gender-related care was associated with fewer anxiety symptoms at Time 2.

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3. Bustangi NM, Al-Bihani B. Laparoscopic management of small bowel obstruction due to unusual foreign body ingestion in a child with autism: a case report. J Surg Case Rep;2025 (Sep);2025(9):rjaf615.

Foreign body ingestion in children, especially those aged 6 months to 3 years, is a common clinical concern. While most objects pass through the gastrointestinal tract uneventfully, some may result in obstruction and necessitate surgical intervention. We report a rare case of a 10-year-old child with autism who presented with small bowel obstruction following ingestion of a rubber feeding bottle nipple. Imaging confirmed the object lodged in the proximal jejunum. The patient underwent successful laparoscopic extraction of the foreign body and concurrent appendectomy for acute appendicitis. Postoperative recovery was uneventful, and the patient was discharged on Day 5. This case supports laparoscopic intervention as a safe and effective option for managing gastrointestinal foreign bodies and concomitant intra-abdominal pathology in pediatric patients.

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4. Clarke F. Teaching nursing with autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Br J Nurs;2025 (Sep 4);34(16):818.

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5. Hoeberichts K, Roke Y, Damen F, Niks I, Van Harten PN. A qualitative study of the stress autism mate app among autistic adults: user experiences and effects on stress awareness and coping skills. Front Psychiatry;2025;16:1637008.

INTRODUCTION: Autistic adults often face unique challenges in stress management. Conventional tools may not cater to their distinct needs. The Stress Autism Mate (SAM) app was developed to support stress recognition and promote active coping strategies through structured self-monitoring and personalised feedback. This study explored how autistic outpatient adolescents and adults experience the use of SAM in relation to stress awareness, coping behaviours, and engagement with digital tools. METHODS: A qualitative phenomenological design was used, involving in-depth interviews with ten autistic participants (N = 10) who used SAM for at least four weeks. Reflexive thematic analysis was conducted to identify key patterns in user experiences. RESULTS: Three key processes were identified: (1) SAM facilitated increased awareness of previously unrecognised stress by externalising internal states, (2) participants shifted from avoidant to active coping strategies, supported by structured reflection and coping suggestions, and (3) the app’s emotionally neutral, predictable design created a safe and engaging space for self-regulation. However, tensions between structure and flexibility highlighted the need for greater personalisation to sustain engagement over time. DISCUSSION: In conclusion, SAM supports autistic individuals in transforming vague stress experiences into actionable insights, fostering emotional literacy and coping capacity. These findings extend prior quantitative evidence on SAM’s efficacy and provide actionable design recommendations for mHealth interventions aimed at neurodivergent populations.

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6. Jia L, Hongfei D, Deyun Z. Relationship between 25(OH)D(2), 25(OH)D(3) and core symptoms in autism spectrum disorder. Front Pediatr;2025;13:1622439.

BACKGROUND: This study intended to explore the levels of 25(OH)D(2) and 25(OH)D(3) in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and analyzed the correlation between 25(OH)D(2), 25(OH)D(3) levels and ASD core symptoms, children development. METHODS: A total of 208 children with ASD who were diagnosed in hospital from January 2021 to December 2023 were selected as the ASD group. 208 children for routine physical examination were selected as the control group. The contents of 25(OH)D(2) and 25(OH)D(3) in serum were detected by high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) method. The ASD group were assessed by Autism Behavior Checklist (ABC), Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) and Gesell Development Schedule (GDS). Meanwhile, the correlations between the levels of 25(OH)D(2), 25(OH)D(3) and ABC, CARS, GDS in ASD children were analyzed. RESULTS: The serum levels of 25(OH)D(2) and 25(OH)D(3) in the blood of the children in the ASD group were significantly lower than those in the control group (P < 0.050). There was no significant correlation between serum 25(OH)D(2) levels and ABC, CARS, in children with ASD (P > 0.050). However, there were lower 25(OH)D(3) levels were associated with more severe ASD symptoms (P < 0.050). The higher level of 25(OH)D(2) was significantly correlated with lower adaptive behavior and personal-social of GDS (P < 0.050). The higher level of 25(OH)D(3) was significantly correlated with higher adaptive behavior, fine motor and personal-social of GDS (P < 0.050). CONCLUSIONS: The levels of 25(OH)D(2) and 25(OH)D(3) in ASD children were significantly lower than those in healthy children. Besides, the study identified distinct roles for vitamin D isoforms including 25(OH)D(2) and 25(OH)D(3) in ASD pathophysiology. 25(OH)D(2) showed selective impairments in adaptive behavior and personal-social behavior. 25(OH)D(3) exhibited strong inverse correlations with symptom severity and positive associations with adaptive/fine motor/personal-social.

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7. Kurokawa S, Kawade Y, Nomura K, Hosogane N, Nagasawa T, Matsumoto Y, Morinaga S, Kaise Y, Higuchi A, Goto A, Inada N, Kodaira M, Kishimoto T. Evaluating Telepsychiatric Assessment Satisfaction in Children and Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Their Caregivers: Randomized Controlled Trial. JMIR Pediatr Parent;2025 (Sep 5);8:e69791.

BACKGROUND: Children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often face structural and psychological barriers in accessing medical care, including economic costs, long wait times, and stress of attending new medical environments. The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the adoption of telehealth services to overcome these challenges. However, few studies have assessed the satisfaction levels of children and adolescents diagnosed with neurodevelopmental disorders and their caregivers when they use telepsychiatry, particularly in Japan. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to evaluate satisfaction by conducting telepsychiatric assessments in children and adolescents diagnosed with ADHD or ASD and their caregivers and to identify factors associated with higher satisfaction levels. METHODS: A total of 68 patients aged 6-17 years with a confirmed diagnosis of ADHD or ASD and their caregivers participated in this study. The participants were recruited from Keio University Hospital and four collaborating institutions in Japan. Each patient and their caregiver underwent two assessment sessions, one face-to-face and the other via telepsychiatric assessment (a remote video tool), in a randomized order. Upon completing both assessments, the participants completed a satisfaction questionnaire using a 5-point Likert scale that covered aspects such as audio and video quality, seamless communication, perceived warmth, reduced burden, and the ability to behave naturally. Spearman rank correlation coefficients and multiple regression analyses were performed to identify factors associated with overall satisfaction. RESULTS: Among the patients, 70% (47/67) reported being « satisfied » or « very satisfied » with the telepsychiatric assessment, and 88% (60/68) of caregivers reported similar satisfaction levels. Multiple regression analysis showed that in children, high satisfaction was associated with seamless viewing of the screen, reduced burden of hospital visits, and the ability to speak naturally during the assessment. For caregivers, visual clarity and the child’s natural behavior were crucial factors. CONCLUSIONS: Telepsychiatric assessments are an effective and practical option to provide care for children and adolescents diagnosed with ADHD or ASD and their caregivers, offering high levels of satisfaction. Technical reliability and reduced travel burden significantly contributed to positive experiences. However, ensuring that children and adolescents behave naturally and feel a sense of warmth during remote assessment is crucial to maximizing their satisfaction. Telepsychiatric services can enhance the quality of health care, making them valuable supplementary tools for clinical practice.

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8. Lutz ASF. Applied Behavior Analysis in the Crosshairs: Neurodiversity, the Intact Mind, and Autism Politics. Perspect Behav Sci;2025 (Sep);48(3):547-553.

Recent attacks on applied behavior analysis (ABA) by neurodiversity advocates share a common theme with opposition to other supports, such as subminimum wage vocational programs and congregate residential settings: the intact mind assumption, which maintains that even profoundly autistic people have typical intelligence, even if they present as severely cognitively impaired. This article examines the history of the intact mind assumption, which was largely shaped by psychoanalytic theory in the mid-20(th) century, as well as its impact on contemporary disability policy and practice.

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9. Mana M, Ghotbeddin Z, Khazaeel K, Moarabi A, Parsa H. Aspirin’s Role in Reducing Oxidative Stress: Implications for Cognition and Heart Function in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Vet Med Int;2025;2025:4089667.

Background: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by impairments in social communication and the presence of additional conditions such as heart disease. Oxidative stress has been linked to the severity of autism, suggesting a potential role for antioxidants in mitigating its effects. Aspirin, an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory drug, has shown protective effects on heart function. This study aimed to investigate the effects of aspirin on cognition, social behavior, and left ventricular hypertrophy in adult male rats following induction of an autism model with valproic acid (VPA). Methods: Pregnant Wistar rats were divided into four groups: control, VPA, aspirin, and VPA + aspirin. VPA was administered on the 12th day of pregnancy to induce the autism model. Offspring in the aspirin group received aspirin after weaning. Social behavior and cognition were assessed in adulthood, and left ventricular thickness and heart function were evaluated using echocardiography. Oxidative stress markers in the hippocampus were also measured. Results: The results showed that VPA-exposed rats exhibited decreased social behavior and cognition compared to the control group. However, aspirin treatment improved social interaction and cognition in the VPA-exposed rats. Left ventricular thickness, heart rate, and volume increased in the VPA group, while aspirin treatment mitigated these changes. Additionally, VPA exposure led to increased oxidative stress, which was reduced by aspirin treatment (all cases p < 0.05). Conclusion: VPA-induced autism model during pregnancy resulted in disturbances in social behavior, cognition, and heart function in offspring, accompanied by increased oxidative stress. Aspirin treatment showed improvements in social behavior, cognition, and cardiac parameters, possibly by reducing oxidative stress markers. These findings suggest a potential therapeutic role for aspirin in ameliorating the behavioral and cardiac issues associated with VPA-induced autism model.

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10. Nitzan I, Khanchin G, Safir M, Wajnsztajn D. Myopia and astigmatism in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. J aapos;2025 (Sep 5):104628.

Of 894,375 Israeli adolescents undergoing standardized medical and ocular assessments in our nationwide cross-sectional study, 2,622 (0.3%) had autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Adolescents with ASD had significantly higher adjusted odds of both myopia and astigmatism compared with peers who did not have ASD. A dose-response relationship was observed for both myopia severity and astigmatism cylinder power. Associations were consistent across all astigmatism axis orientations, most notably with-the-rule. These findings suggest that early and routine vision screening may be beneficial in identifying and addressing refractive errors among youth with ASD.

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11. Rymkhanova A, Mulikova S, Sakayeva A, Akhmetzhanova Z, Zhanibekova S, Bekmaganbetova A. Addressing the training gaps for ASD specialists in Kazakhstan: A forecast-based approach. J Educ Health Promot;2025;14:316.

BACKGROUND: Studying the problems of training personnel to work with children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in the Republic of Kazakhstan is of high relevance and importance due to the trend of stable growth in the number of children in this category, indicating the need for systemic development and timely solutions. This study investigates the gaps in training for ASD specialists and provides a forecast-based approach to address these needs effectively. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study utilized stratified random sampling to ensure the representativeness of each key participant group: children with ASD of different age categories, participants from various geographical regions of Kazakhstan, educators, health professionals, and social workers. Data were collected from children with ASD, teachers, specialists working with these children, doctors involved in diagnosis and treatment, and social support specialists. This comprehensive approach allowed for a detailed understanding of the challenges and needs related to ASD in Kazakhstan. Additionally, mathematical modeling and forecasting methods were employed to predict the increase in the number of children with ASD, facilitating the development of targeted educational programs for training specialists at undergraduate and graduate levels and improving the qualifications of practicing professionals. RESULTS: The study revealed significant insights into the current state of ASD specialist training in Kazakhstan. The data indicated a lack of sufficient training programs tailored to the needs of children with ASD. The forecast predicted a continuous rise in the number of children diagnosed with ASD, emphasizing the urgency for developing additional educational and training programs. The findings highlighted the necessity for an integrated approach to support ASD children, including the development of individual educational strategies, psychological programs for enhancing social, communication, and adaptive skills, and robust support systems for families. CONCLUSION: The study underscores the critical need for systemic improvements in the training of specialists working with children with ASD in Kazakhstan. By forecasting the rising trend of ASD diagnoses, it emphasizes the importance of proactive measures in developing comprehensive educational and training programs. The results advocate for a multifaceted approach, incorporating pedagogical, psychological, medical, and social aspects to create an inclusive and supportive environment for children with ASD and their families. This approach aims to improve early detection, treatment, and overall outcomes for children with ASD, ensuring better integration and support within the educational and social systems.

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12. Slušná D, Muchart-López J, Hinzen W, Canales-Rodríguez EJ. White matter microstructure of language pathways in non-verbal autism: insights from diffusion tensor imaging and myelin water imaging. Front Hum Neurosci;2025;19:1551868.

INTRODUCTION: Absence of language development is a condition encountered across a large range of neurodevelopmental disorders, including a significant proportion of children with autism spectrum disorder. The neurobiological underpinnings of non-verbal ASD (nvASD) remain poorly understood. METHODS: This study employed multimodal MRI to investigate white matter (WM) microstructural abnormalities in nvASD, focusing on language-related pathways. We analyzed diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) metrics-fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), and radial diffusivity (RD)-alongside myelin water imaging (MWI) metrics, including myelin water fraction (MWF) and intra/extracellular water T2 relaxation time (T2IE). A cohort of 10 children with nvASD and 10 age-matched typically developing controls was examined across eight major language-related tracts and the corticospinal tract (CST) as a motor reference. RESULTS: While DTI and MWI metrics showed no significant inter-group lateralization differences, MWF and T2IE exhibited pronounced lateralization exclusively in the nvASD group. Results also revealed significant microstructural differences in nvASD. MD and RD were the most sensitive DTI parameters, demonstrating widespread increases, whereas FA was less discriminatory. MWF exhibited the largest percentage change relative to controls (25-50%), suggesting a marked reduction in myelin content within affected tracts. Concurrently, widespread increases in T2IE indicate a less densely packed extra-axonal space, consistent with altered axonal integrity and reduced cellular surface area per unit volume. DISCUSSION: These findings align with prior evidence linking myelin abnormalities to ASD. Notably, microstructural differences were not restricted to language-related tracts but also extended to the CST, suggesting a more extensive WM disruption in nvASD. The absence of significant correlations between MRI-derived metrics and clinical measures highlights the complexity of the neurobiological alterations in nvASD. As the observed lateralization patterns may reflect, in part, the influence of methodological variability in tract definition, segmentation strategy, and tractography method, these results should be interpreted with caution. Future studies with larger cohorts and longitudinal designs are required to clarify the developmental trajectory of these microstructural abnormalities, their relationship with language impairment severity, and their potential role as biomarkers for nvASD.

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13. Trice KM, Qi Z. From encoding to remembering: pragmatic inferences reveal distinct routes of word learning in autistic children. Front Hum Neurosci;2025;19:1633013.

Mentalizing skills-the capacity to attribute mental states-play critical roles in word learning during typical language development. In autism, mentalizing difficulties may constrain word-learning pathways, limiting language-acquisition opportunities. We ask how autistic children encode and retrieve novel words and what drives individual differences. We test whether autistic children’s word learning benefits from pragmatic inferences, as in non-autistic. Forty-nine 6-to-9-year-old verbal autistic children participated. During learning, four novel words in the direct-mapping condition (DM) could be uniquely mapped to one novel object and four in the pragmatic-inference condition (PI) required children to assume speaker intent. Immediate recall and retention (15-min delay) were tested via four-alternative-forced-choice-task. Autistic children showed above-chance PI mapping, no immediate recall differences, and PI retention advantage. However, individual difference analyses suggest a bimodal PI-retention pattern: 55% showed above-chance PI word recognition (PI-Retained) and 45% at-or-below-chance (PI-Limited). Retention profiles do not reflect general memory-most PI-Limited children remembered DM words well. Instead, profile was associated directly with learning success. For PI-Limited specifically, learning performance was at-chance. Eye-movement during learning showed converging evidence: only PI-Retained consistently diverged between looks-to-target and competitor. Only nonverbal IQ in conjunction with initial mapping reliably differentiated groups, not mentalizing or language measures. This suggests distinct pathways of word-meaning acquisition in autistic children with otherwise similar profiles. While PI resolution may facilitate word-meaning acquisition for some, DM better serves others. This underscores the importance of characterizing learning processes as a pathway to understanding the heterogeneity of language in autism.

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14. Yeom JS, Kim YS. Parenting stress in autism spectrum disorder: A comparative analysis with other developmental disabilities. Brain Dev;2025 (Sep 8);47(5):104436.

OBJECTIVE: To compare parenting stress between parents of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and other developmental disabilities (DDs) and to examine ASD’s influence on parenting stress through mediation analysis. METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed 48 children with ASD (ASD group) and 77 with non-ASD DDs (non-ASD group), along with one of their parents, at the Gyeongsang National University Hospital between May 2021 and August 2024. All underwent developmental assessments and completed the Korean version of the Parenting Stress Index-4 and the Child Interactive Behavior Test (CIBT). RESULTS: The ASD group’s median age was 37.5 months, with 37 boys (77.1 %). No significant difference was found in child age, sex, or parental demographics between the groups. Total parenting stress was significantly higher in the ASD group (p = 0.01), primarily due to higher child domain scores (p<0.01) than in the non-ASD group. Among the child domain subscales, Distractibility/Hyperactivity, Adaptability, Reinforces Parent, and Acceptability were significantly higher in the ASD group, while only the Attachment subscale differed in the parent domain. For high parenting stress (>85th percentile), Initiative Interaction-a CIBT subscale-was the only independent predictor, rather than ASD diagnosis. Mediation analysis showed no direct effect of ASD on parenting stress (β = 4.28, p = 0.42) but an indirect effect via reduced initial interaction (β = 3.68, p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Parenting stress was higher in the ASD group, mainly due to child-related factors. ASD influenced parenting stress indirectly through reduced initiative interaction. These findings provide further insight into parenting stress in families of children with ASD.

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15. Yu Y, Wang Y, Zhang J, Li S, Wang Y, You X, Chen X, Du M, Xie L, Liu SJ. The gut commensal Faecalibacterium hominis attenuates indole-AhR signaling and restores ASD-like behaviors with BTBR mice. Front Microbiol;2025;16:1640149.

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD), a group of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by the core symptoms of impaired social communication and stereotyped behaviors, is strongly associated with dysregulated microbiota-gut-brain axis. Emerging evidence suggests that Faecalibacterium, which showed reduced abundance in ASD cohorts, holds therapeutic potential, though its interaction with host remain unexplored. Here, we investigated the efficacy and molecular basis of Faecalibacterium hominis 4P-15 (4P-15) in BTBR T (+) Itpr3 (tf) /J (BTBR) mice, an idiopathic ASD mouse model. Oral administration of 4P-15 significantly reduced the intestinal levels of indole, indole-3-propionic acid (IPA), and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), as well as the level of IPA in brain. Furthermore, the decreased levels of IPA in brain contributed to the attenuated aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) signaling characterized by increased expression of downstream elements, including glutamate transporters and GABA receptors. Ultimately, this modulation led to the restoration of excitatory/inhibitory imbalance, a typical pathophysiological feature of ASD, and thereby alleviated ASD core behavioral symptoms. Our findings underscore Faecalibacterium-mediated AhR modulation as a promising therapeutic strategy for ASD, highlighting the dual potential of Faecalibacterium-based probiotics and targeted interventions against indole-AhR signaling to address neurodevelopmental disorders.

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16. Zhu Y, Wei SY, Fu XT, Cheng X, Lin XH. Potential Mechanism Connecting Preeclampsia to Autism Spectrum Disorder in Offspring: The Role of Microglial Abnormalities. Front Biosci (Landmark Ed);2025 (Aug 29);30(8):36412.

Preeclampsia (PE) is a serious complication of pregnancy characterized by chronic inflammation and immune dysregulation, which significantly increases the risk of neurodevelopmental disorders in offspring, including the autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This review investigated the potential mechanisms linking PE to ASD, with a particular focus on the role of microglial abnormalities. Epidemiological studies have revealed that prenatal exposure to PE raised the risk of ASD, with affected offspring showing increased odds ratios. Microglia, the prime resident immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS), are critical for normal neurodevelopment, influencing processes such as neural stem cell (NSC) proliferation, synaptic pruning, and normal function of the neural circuit. Early-onset preeclampsia (EOPE) and late-onset preeclampsia (LOPE) may have an impact on the microglia abnormality and ASD through not exactly same pathway. Postmortem studies of ASD have further revealed increased microglial density, altered microglial morphology, and upregulated inflammatory markers in key brain regions, including the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Understanding the complex processes and potential mechanisms between EOPE, LOPE, microglial abnormalities, and ASD pathogenesis may highlight the importance of early screening and intervention for children born to mothers with PE. Targeting microglia-mediated pathways may offer novel therapeutic strategies to reduce the risk of ASD in these vulnerable populations.

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