1. Aldakhil AF, Shaik RA. Misophonia in autism: A systematic review of prevalence, clinical features, and comorbidities. Res Dev Disabil. 2025; 161: 105005.

BACKGROUND: Misophonia, characterized by intense emotional reactions to specific sounds, is increasingly studied in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and related mental health conditions such as obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), anxiety, and depression. Autistic individuals often have sensory sensitivities, which may predispose them to misophonia. However, the relationship between misophonia, sensory sensitivities, and psychiatric comorbidities in autism remains underexplored. AIMS: This systematic review examines the prevalence, clinical characteristics, comorbidities, and treatment outcomes of misophonia in autistic individuals and related conditions. It also explores the neurobiological links between misophonia and sensory sensitivities and their impact on quality of life, aiming to inform diagnostic and intervention strategies. METHODS: A systematic search was conducted across seven databases following PRISMA guidelines. Studies assessing misophonia in autism, using established diagnostic criteria, were included. The risk of bias was evaluated using ROBINS-I, AXIS, Venice criteria, and JBI tools. RESULTS: Fourteen studies (n = 89,889 participants) met inclusion criteria. Misophonia prevalence in autism ranged from 12.8 % to 35.5 %, with 79 % of autistic individuals with misophonia also experiencing psychiatric comorbidities such as anxiety, OCD, and depression. Clinical characteristics included intense emotional reactions to specific sound triggers (e.g., eating, breathing) and significant disruptions in daily functioning. Sensory sensitivities were reported in 21.4 % of cases, highlighting the overlap between misophonia and broader sensory processing challenges in autism. There were only two intervention studies: one demonstrating the efficacy of risperidone in reducing misophonia severity, and another suggesting cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and tinnitus retraining therapy (TRT) as potential management strategies. Quality assessment revealed varying levels of bias, particularly in observational studies, which often lacked robust randomization and blinding. CONCLUSION: Misophonia is prevalent in autism and frequently co-occurs with psychiatric conditions and sensory hypersensitivities. Standardized diagnostic tools and tailored interventions are needed to improve clinical outcomes. Future research should explore longitudinal trajectories, genetic and environmental influences, and effective management strategies to address the complex interplay between misophonia, sensory sensitivities, and autism.

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2. Bemmouna D, Rabot E, Coutelle R, Lefebvre F, Weibel S, Weiner L. Dialectical Behaviour Therapy to Treat Emotion Dysregulation in Autistic adults without Intellectual Disability: A Randomised Controlled Trial. Psychother Psychosom. 2025: 1-18.

INTRODUCTION: Emotion dysregulation is prevalent in autistic adults without intellectual disability whereby it has been associated with heightened non-suicidal self-injury and suicidal behaviours. Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT) has shown to be feasible and preliminary findings suggest that it might reduce emotion dysregulation in this population. Yet studies evaluating the efficacy of DBT in this context are lacking. METHODS: Sixty-three autistic adults presenting with emotion dysregulation as well as self-harm and/or suicidal behaviours were randomised either to the DBT condition (18-week treatment) or to the waiting list condition. Participants completed self-report scales, including emotion dysregulation, alexithymia, depression and quality of life, at 4 time points (pre-, mid-, post-therapy, six-month follow-up). RESULTS: Emotion dysregulation improved in the DBT condition relative to the waiting list condition mid-therapy (β01 = -18.59 [-27.67 to -9.44], Pr (β01 < 0) = 1.000), post- therapy (β02 = -31.91 [-41.67 to -22.30], Pr (β02 < 0) = 1.000), with lasting improvements at follow-up. Alexithymia improvement mediated the therapy effects on emotion dysregulation. Moreover, depressive symptoms and quality of life improved in the DBT condition relative to the waiting list condition post-therapy, with improvements lasting at follow-up. CONCLUSION: DBT was found to be effective to reduce emotion dysregulation in autistic adults presenting with self-harm and/or suicidal behaviour. Additionally, improvements on depression and quality-of-life were observed post-therapy. Interestingly, the improvements on emotion dysregulation were mediated by a decrease in alexithymia, consistent with research showing that alexithymia is a central mechanism of emotion dysregulation in autistic adults.

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3. Carroll HM, Thom RP, McDougle CJ. The differential diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder in adults. Expert Rev Neurother. 2025.

INTRODUCTION: Diagnosing autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in adults is challenging due to its heterogeneity and symptom overlap with other conditions. Making an accurate diagnosis can be difficult and overwhelming but is vital for proper accommodations and interventions while avoiding unproductive or harmful treatments. AREAS COVERED: The authors have based their review on a comprehensive literature search using PubMed, PsycINFO, and Google Scholar to identify relevant recommendations, diagnostic tools, and common differential diagnoses for adults with ASD. A clinical framework is provided based on the DSM-5 criteria, starting with an evaluation of childhood symptom onset and persistent manifestations of the core criteria – social and communication impairment, along with restricted, repetitive behaviors. Conditions with overlapping presentations, including personality disorders, anxiety, depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and schizophrenia, are discussed, as well as challenges in differentiating these from ASD. EXPERT OPINION: Many factors complicate diagnosing ASD in adults – such as skewed public perception or misinformation spread on social media. Existing tools frequently miss subtle or atypical presentations, particularly in underdiagnosed groups like women and older adults. Promising advances in machine learning and artificial intelligence will hopefully improve diagnostic precision in the future. Up-to-date clinician training and large-scale research remain paramount for refining adult ASD diagnosis.

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4. Dolfi A, Faur D, Scălcău MR, Sorescu EM, Ciumăgeanu MD, Tudose C. Validation of the Romanian Version of Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) and Empathy Quotient (EQ) in the General Population. Psychiatr Q. 2025.

INTRODUCTION: The diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) can be difficult to achieve, especially since the diagnostic criteria have changed in the last decade. This challenge is even greater for Romanian clinicians, as there are currently no screening tools validated for diagnosing ASD in adults within the Romanian population. PURPOSE: This study aims to validate two screening instruments used to identify autistic traits in the Romanian general population: the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) and the Empathy Quotient (EQ). METHODS: Data was collected by administering the Romanian version of the scales to a sample of 916 Romanian native speakers from the non-clinical population. 108 individuals were re-tested after 2 years. The scales were validated by determining their reliability with respect to the stability of the results and evaluating their construct and structural validity in correlation with the following instruments: QCAE (Questionnaire of Cognitive and Affective Empathy), PAQ (Perth Alexithymia Questionnaire) and BVAQ (Bermond-Vorst Alexithymia Questionnaire). RESULTS: Our data revealed that, regarding reliability, the Romanian version of AQ presents slightly lower internal consistency compared to the original validation study. Concerning structural validity, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) revealed suboptimal fit indices for the original 5-factor structure. Based on a subsequent exploratory factor analysis (EFA), a 2-factor solution returned improved fit indices. CONCLUSION: Despite employing more items to measure the constructs than needed, this study confirmed that both instruments present a valuable resource for clinicians working with neurodivergent patients, as interest in this area of pathology has increased greatly in Romania over the past few years. Practical implications and methodological issues regarding the two instruments are discussed.

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5. Donahue MM, Robson E, Colgin LL. Hippocampal Place Cell Sequences Are Impaired in a Rat Model of Fragile X Syndrome. J Neurosci. 2025; 45(15).

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that can cause impairments in spatial cognition and memory. The hippocampus is thought to support spatial cognition through the activity of place cells, neurons with spatial receptive fields. Coordinated firing of place cell populations is organized by different oscillatory patterns in the hippocampus during specific behavioral states. Theta rhythms organize place cell populations during awake exploration. Sharp wave-ripples organize place cell population reactivation during waking rest. Here, we examined the coordination of CA1 place cell populations during active behavior and subsequent rest in a rat model of FXS (Fmr1 knock-out rats). While the organization of individual place cells by the theta rhythm was normal, the coordinated activation of sequences of place cells during individual theta cycles was impaired in Fmr1 knock-out rats. Furthermore, the subsequent replay of place cell sequences was impaired during waking rest following active exploration. Together, these results expand our understanding of how genetic modifications that model those observed in FXS affect hippocampal physiology and suggest a potential mechanism underlying impaired spatial cognition in FXS.

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6. Handeland H, Evensen KAI, Robinson HS. Focus on physiotherapy and manual therapy for infants in Norway, a cross-sectional study on referral practice, and planned interventions. BMC Pediatr. 2025; 25(1): 282.

BACKGROUND: The Norwegian health care system has a mandatory program for close and systematically follow-up on all children, starting in early infancy through the Child Health Care Centers in the municipalities. Additionally, some infants are referred to physiotherapists and manual therapists for several reasons. Little is known about who is referring them and the cause for the referral. In Norway, physiotherapists working with infants can be employed in the communities or work in outpatient clinics, both are within the primary health care system. The main purpose of the present study was to explore the referral practice of infants to physiotherapy and compare those treated by physiotherapists and manual therapists in primary health care in Norway. Furthermore, to describe the planned interventions. METHODS: Cross-sectional study including 444 infants (age under 12 months) referred to physiotherapists or manual therapists working in primary health care in Norway. RESULTS: Median age (range) of the infants was 14 (1, 52) weeks and 344 were born at due date. Most infants examined by a physiotherapist were referred from other health personnel and more of the referrals to manual therapists were from parents due to their concern. Age at examination was between week 1-12 for 42% of the participants. Infants referred for motor development problems were equally distributed between the physiotherapists and manual therapists. All premature infants were referred to the physiotherapists. Concerning the interventions, both physiotherapists and manual therapists planned to use advice, handling, and stimulation. More of the physiotherapists reported to focus on advice related to motor development and the use of prone play. CONCLUSION: The infants in Norway are referred to physiotherapists and/or manual therapists for numerous reasons, and the distribution of diagnoses between the therapists seem reasonable. Infants are mostly referred by other health personnel but also because of parents’ own concern. Based on recommendations, some infants with asymmetries should be examined earlier. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier NCT03626389. Registered on August 13th, 2018 (retrospectively registered).

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7. Jenabi E, Maleki A, Ayubi E, Bashirian S, Seyedi M, Abdoli S. Corrigendum to « The predictors of sleep quality in mothers of children with autism spectrum disorders in the west of Iran: A path analysis » <[Heliyon Volume 11, Issue 1, January 2025, Article e41136]>. Heliyon. 2025; 11(4): e41916.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e41136.].

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8. Jeppesen ACE, Andresen J, Parvaiz R, Clemmensen L, Jepsen JRM, Hansen DW, Glenthøj LB. Study protocol for the EYEdentify project: An examination of gaze behaviour in autistic adults using a virtual reality-based paradigm. PLoS One. 2025; 20(4): e0316502.

INTRODUCTION: Autism Spectrum Condition (ASC) is characterised by difficulties in social communication and interaction, which may pose significant challenges to daily functioning throughout life. While current diagnostic methods for ASC often rely on measures based on subjective reports, there is a growing need for objective, quantifiable measures to support current clinical assessment of ASC. Eye-tracking technology records eye and gaze movements in real time and provides a direct and objective method for assessing social attention. Integrating eye-tracking within virtual reality (VR) environments presents a novel approach for capturing gaze behaviour in dynamic, ecologically valid social scenarios. This study aims to investigate whether VR-based eye information can reveal group differences in gaze behaviour between autistic adults and neurotypical controls in simulated social interactions. METHODS: This case-control study will include 140 adults diagnosed with ASC and 50 neurotypical controls, matched by age and gender. Participants will engage in six VR-based social scenarios, which vary in social complexity and the presence of non-social distractors. Eye information will be measured using eye-tracking technology integrated into a head-mounted display. Gaze behaviour will be analysed through fixation-based metrics on parameters including number of fixations, mean fixation time, and dwell time, on predetermined Areas of Interest. ANALYSIS: Statistical analyses will assess between-group differences in gaze behaviour as well as correlations between gaze metrics and clinical measures of social functioning, social cognition and symptom severity. DISCUSSION: This study utilises VR-based eye-tracking to investigate novel paradigms for assessing gaze behaviour in ASC in immersive, interactive environments and aims to advance the current understanding of visual social attention in ASC. Positive outcomes from this study may support further research into VR-based eye-tracking to supplement existing clinical assessment methods.

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9. Kiarashi Y, Lantz J, Reyna MA, Anderson C, Rad AB, Foster J, Villavicencio T, Hamlin T, Clifford GD. Predicting seizure episodes and high-risk events in autism through adverse behavioral patterns. Physiol Meas. 2025.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether historical behavior data can predict the occurrence of high-risk behavioral or Seizure events in individuals with profound Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), thereby facilitating early intervention and improved support. APPROACH: We conducted an analysis of nine years of behavior and seizure data from 353 individuals with ASD. Our analysis focused on the seven most common behaviors labeled by a human, while all other behaviors were grouped into an ‘other’ category, resulting in a total of eight behavior categories. Using a deep learning algorithm, we predicted the occurrence of seizures and high-risk behavioral events for the following day based on data collected over the most recent 14-day period. We employed permutation-based statistical tests to assess the significance of our predictive performance. MAIN RESULTS: Our model achieved accuracies of 70.5% for seizures, 78.3% for aggression, 80.2% for SIB, and 85.7% for elopement. All results were significant for more than 85% of the population. These findings suggest that high-risk behaviors can serve as early indicators not only of subsequent challenging behaviors but also of upcoming seizure events. SIGNIFICANCE: By demonstrating, for the first time, that behavioral patterns can predict seizures as well as adverse behaviors, this approach expands the clinical utility of predictive modeling in ASD. Early warning systems derived from these predictions can guide timely interventions, enhance inclusion in educational and community settings, and improve quality of life by helping anticipate and mitigate severe behavioral and medical events.

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10. Kira S, Arai C. Anesthesiologists could be the most suitable clinicians to screen for latent diseases in autistic patients requiring dental general anesthesia. J Dent Anesth Pain Med. 2025; 25(2): 143-5.

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11. Mahmood MA, Jamel L, Alturki N, Tawfeek MA. Leveraging artificial intelligence for diagnosis of children autism through facial expressions. Sci Rep. 2025; 15(1): 11945.

The global population contains a substantial number of individuals who experience autism spectrum disorder, thus requiring immediate identification to enable successful intervention approaches. The authors assess the detection of autism-related learning difficulties in children by evaluating deep learning models that use transfer learning methods along with fine-tuning methods. Using autism spectrum disorder (ASD) diagnosed child RGB images data, researchers evaluated six prevalent deep learning structures: DenseNet201, ResNet152, VGG16, VGG19, MobileNetV2, and EfficientNet-B0. ResNet152 reached the highest accuracy rate of 89% when functioning independently. This paper develops a hybrid deep-learning model by integrating ResNet152 with Vision Transformers (ViT) to achieve better classification performance. The ViT-ResNet152 model’s convolutional and transformer processing elements worked together to improve the accuracy of the diagnosis to 91.33% and make it better at finding different cases of autism spectrum disorder (ASD).The research outcomes demonstrate that AI tools show promise for delivering highly precise and standardized methods to detect ASD at an early stage. Future research needs to include multiple data types as well as extend dataset variability while optimizing hybrid architecture systems to elevate diagnostic forecasting. The incorporation of artificial intelligence in ASD evaluation services holds promise to transform early therapy approaches, which leads to better results for autistic children all around the globe.

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12. Mortazavi M, Batalov S, Lenberg J, Blucher C, Omorodion A, Helbling D, Van Der Kraan L, Bezares-Orin Z, Ramalingam A, Bainbridge MN, Sebat J, Besterman AD. Long-Read Genome Sequencing in Clinical Psychiatry: RFX3 Haploinsufficiency in a Hospitalized Adolescent With Autism, Intellectual Disability, and Behavioral Decompensation. Am J Psychiatry. 2025: appiajp20240471.

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13. O’Flaherty M, Hill J, Bourke M, Fortnum K, Thomas G, Gomersall SR, Cairney J. Unpacking the relationship between autism, sport participation, and adolescent health: A causal mediation analysis. Disabil Health J. 2025: 101832.

BACKGROUND: Autistic children are less likely to participate in sport than non-autistic children, and sport participation may improve health and health related quality of life. It is therefore possible that sport participation may partially mediate the association between autism and adolescent health and health related quality of life. Sport participation may have distinct effects for autistic and non-autistic children, and these effects may also differ between team and individual sports. OBJECTIVES: The study had two objectives. First, to estimate cumulative effects of sport participation (team or individual) between ages 8-15 on adolescent health and health related quality of life and determine whether effects of sport participation differed for autistic children compared to non-autistic children. Second, to determine whether sport participation (team or individual) mediated the relationship between autism and adolescent health and health related quality of life. METHODS: Methods for causal mediation analysis were used to analyse data from a representative cohort of Australian children (n = 313 autistic; 6346 non-autistic) between ages 8-15. Sport participation was reported by parents from ages 8-15. Outcomes at age 14-15 included body mass index, the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory, the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, and the Short Moods and Feelings Questionnaire. RESULTS: Non-autistic children’s health benefited from all forms of sport. For autistic children, however, team sport participation was linked to worse mental health and no benefit in physical health. Individual sport improved physical health related quality of life, but not body mass index or mental health for autistic children. The mediation hypothesis was not supported. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that greater efforts are needed to adapt community sport to encourage equitable participation and ensure that participation benefits autistic children’s health and health-related quality of life equally.

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14. Ohmoto Y, Terada K, Shimizu H, Imamura A, Iwanaga R, Kumazaki H. The potential of evaluating shape drawing using machine learning for predicting high autistic traits. PLoS One. 2025; 20(4): e0320770.

BACKGROUND: Children with high autistic traits often exhibit deficits in drawing, an important skill for social adaptability. Machine learning is a powerful technique for learning predictive models from movement data, so drawing processes and product characteristics can be objectively evaluated. This study aimed to assess the potential of evaluating shape drawing using machine learning to predict high autistic traits. METHOD: Seventy boys (5.03 ± 0.16) and 63 girls (5.06 ± 0.18) from the general population participated in the study. Participants were asked to draw shapes in the following order: equilateral triangle, inverted equilateral triangle, square, and the sun. A model for classifying participants as likely to have high autistic traits was developed using a support vector machine algorithm with a linear kernel utilizing 16 variables. A 16-inch liquid crystal display pen tablet was used to acquire data on hand-finger fine motor activity while the participants drew each shape. The X and Y coordinates of the pen tip, pen pressure, pen orientation, pen tilt, and eye movements were recorded to determine whether the participants had any problems with this skill. Eye movements were assessed using a webcam. These data and eye movements were used to identify the variables for the support vector machine model. DATA AND RESULTS: For each shape, a model support vector machine was created to classify the high and low autistic trait groups, with accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity all above 85%. The specificity values across all models were 100%. In the inverted equilateral triangle model, specificity, accuracy, and sensitivity values were 100%. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate the potential of assessing shape characteristics using machine learning to predict high levels of autistic traits. Future studies with a wider variety of shapes are warranted to establish further the potential efficacy of drawing skills for screening for autism spectrum conditions.

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15. Rum Y, Genzer S, Golan O, Allison C, Baron-Cohen S, Perry A. Empathy and Interest Towards an Autistic Person and the Effect of Disclosing the Diagnosis. J Autism Dev Disord. 2025.

This study investigates the effects of disclosing an autism diagnosis on non-autistic listeners’ empathy and social interest towards the autistic discloser. In Study 1, participants (non-autistic students in the social sciences/humanities [n = 99; 70% female]) watched a video of an autistic adult sharing an autobiographical story and reported how they believed the storyteller felt, following an introduction in which the storyteller did or did not disclose their diagnosis. Their evaluation of the storyteller’s emotions was compared to the storyteller’s own reports, resulting in an empathic accuracy measure. Participants reported how empathic they felt towards the storyteller and how socially interested they were in them. Studies 2 and 3 replicated the same procedure with STEM students (n = 96; 40% female), and with non-student adults (n = 76; 50% female) from diverse professional/occupational backgrounds, with an additional question about working together. In Study 1, participants in the self-disclosure condition demonstrated higher empathic accuracy, reported more empathy, and greater social interest in the storyteller. Study 2 showed a similar trend of higher empathy in the self-disclosure condition but no differences in social interest measures. Interest in working with the storyteller was higher in the self-disclosure condition. In Study 3, participants in the self-disclosure condition demonstrated higher empathy and greater interest in hearing another story and working with the storyteller. An individual’s self-disclosure of an autism diagnosis improved others’ ability to empathize with them and willingness to work with them. We discuss the complex effect of self-disclosure on social interest in an autistic person.

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16. Smith JD, Vaughn LM, Page E, Mitchell T, Anixt JS. The Value of ECHO Autism to Primary Care Providers: Building Community and Capacity. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2025.

OBJECTIVES: The Extension for Community Healthcare Outcomes (ECHO) model has been shown to increase primary care providers’ (PCPs) knowledge and self-efficacy in caring for patients with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Benefits of ECHO Autism participation may not be fully captured in studies measuring only quantitative outcomes. Qualitative methodology was used to explore the perceptions, meaning, and impact of ECHO Autism from the perspective of participating PCPs. METHODS: We used group level assessment, a large-group participatory, qualitative research method modified to a virtual format to explore the perceptions, meaning, and impact of the ECHO Autism program from the perspective of 6 participating PCPs, 1 family member, and 5 hub team members. Individual, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 4 ECHO Autism participants to further explore the identified themes. RESULTS: Participants identified 6 primary themes corroborated by interview participants: (1) direct benefits to PCPs, (2) appreciation of the « all teach, all learn » approach, (3) sense of community, (4) value of the multidisciplinary conceptualization of care for children with ASD, (5) demystification of care for children with ASD, and (6) benefits to the PCPs’ patients and their families. Feedback about ways to enhance the ECHO Autism program was categorized into 5 areas for improvement. CONCLUSION: ECHO Autism builds a community for providers who may otherwise feel isolated and hesitant to manage complex needs of children with ASD. ECHO Autism is an innovative approach to build capacity for PCPs to provide high-quality evidence-based care to these children within their own communities.

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17. Wang H, Cheng G, Li MM. The effectiveness and sustained effects of exercise therapy to improve executive function in children and adolescents with autism: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Pediatr. 2025; 184(5): 286.

This study rigorously examines the efficacy and sustained impact of exercise therapy on enhancing executive function among children and adolescents diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Furthermore, it conducts a comprehensive analysis of five distinct subgroups, categorized by variations in school age, exercise cycles, exercise characteristics, dimensions of executive function, and the administration of medication. A systematic search was conducted across the PubMed, EmBase, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, and SPORTDiscus databases to identify randomized controlled trials published from the inception of the library until October 20, 2024, focusing on the effects of exercise therapy on the enhancement of executive function in children and adolescents with ASD. Sixteen studies were systematically evaluated and included in the meta-analysis, revealing that exercise therapy led to a significant improvement in executive function among children and adolescents with ASD (SMD = 0.41, 95% CI [0.30, 0.52], P = 0.00), along with some evidence of sustained improvement (SMD = 0.74, 95% CI [0.29, 1.20], P = 0.00). Subgroup analyses indicated that exercise did not significantly enhance executive functioning in preschool-aged patients with ASD, and working memory did not exhibit a significant improvement across various dimensions of executive functioning. Furthermore, no differences were observed in analyses of different exercise cycles, exercise characteristics, or the use of medication among subjects. CONCLUSION: Exercise interventions improve executive function in children and adolescents with ASD, with sustained post-intervention effects. Limited impact on working memory and observed heterogeneity highlights the need for more precise intervention designs and rigorous research. WHAT IS KNOWN: • Exercise therapy is widely considered a promising non-pharmacological intervention for improving cognitive functions in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). • Prior studies suggest exercise benefits executive function in ASD, but evidence on sustained effects and subgroup differences remains limited. WHAT IS NEW: • This meta-analysis confirms that exercise therapy significantly and sustainably improves executive function in children and adolescents with ASD, with greater benefits observed in school-aged participants. • For the first time, subgroup analyses reveal age-dependent effects and confirm that working memory shows limited responsiveness to exercise, regardless of medication use or exercise characteristics.

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