1. Benedicto-Rodríguez G, Bellon-Berna P, Ferrández JM. Psychological perspectives on robotic assisted pivotal response treatment in autism. Sci Rep. 2025; 15(1): 43797.

The impact of Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) assisted by the social robot Pepper on the emotional regulation and treatment adherence of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and their caregivers is explored. Given the integration of technology and psychology, our study provides empirical evidence on the role of social robots not only as therapeutic tools but also as facilitators of family engagement and personalized ASD interventions. Our findings highlight significant improvements in children’s emotional responses with the use of a social robot and offer new insights into the variability of caregiver adherence.

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2. Casanova EL, Holliday TW. Hybrid Legacies: Evolutionary Consequences of Neandertal Introgression and Implications for Autism. Bioessays. 2026; 48(1): e70100.

Recent work has shown that a subset of Neandertal-derived single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) seems to be playing roles in autism susceptibility. We review this exciting research, as well as the known history of human migrations and interbreeding events between Homo sapiens and Neandertals, all while placing the current work within the context of hybrid dysgenesis and genetic incompatibilities. In addition to these « pushing » factors (purifying selection), we also explore potential « pulling » factors (positive selection), such as antagonistic pleiotropy and balanced polymorphism, which may influence the retention of otherwise weakly deleterious variants within the modern human genome. This work, along with other studies exploring associations between Neandertal-derived alleles and other neurodivergent conditions, has significant implications for human brain evolution as well as modern human health.

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3. Devienne G, Vantomme G, Huguenard JR. Disrupted Development of the mPFC-Thalamic Circuit in Shank3(-/-) mice, an autism-associated model. Mol Psychiatry. 2025.

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) are a group of neurodevelopmental disorders with heterogeneous causes, and are characterized by communication deficits, impaired social interactions, and repetitive behaviors. Despite numerous studies in mouse models focused on pathophysiological circuit mechanisms of ASD in mature animals, little is known regarding ASD onset and its evolution through development. The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is crucial for higher-order cognitive functions and social behavior, thus key to understanding ASD pathology. To explore early developmental disruptions in the mPFC, we used the Shank3 knockout (Shank3(-/-)) mouse model. SHANK3 is crucial for glutamatergic synapse maturation, and the Shank3(-/-) mouse has been well-characterized for displaying ASD-related behavioral phenotypes. We investigated network, cellular, and synaptic changes within the mPFC and in its projections to the mediodorsal thalamus (MD) at two developmental stages, preweaning (P14) and adulthood (>P55). Our findings reveal early synaptic deficits at P14 both within the mPFC and in its projections to the MD accompanied by alterations in mPFC network activity and reduced excitability of excitatory neurons, overall suggesting hypofunction. Interestingly, behavioral deficits were already detectable by P11, preceding the observation of synaptic changes at P14. By adulthood, these early synaptic and cellular alterations progressed to global dysfunction, characterized by mPFC network hyperfunction and layer 5 pyramidal cell hyperexcitability, accompanied by augmented glutamatergic signaling to MD with enhanced action potential production. These results suggest that early synaptic changes may precede and interact with behavioral deficits, which might lead to compensatory mechanisms that contribute to more pronounced mPFC dysfunction later in development. This study highlights the complex dynamic progression of mPFC deficits in ASD and emphasizes the relevance of early synaptic alterations as potential contributors to later behavioral and cognitive deficits.

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4. Freeth M, Poole D, Newell V, Scargill K. Participatory systems mapping: Can this approach improve how services work for autistic people?. Autism. 2025: 13623613251399656.

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5. Guiotto A, Vallese A, Cordone V, Cervellati F, Benedusi M, Hayek J, Pecorelli A, Valacchi G. Lipid peroxidation-induced cell death in Rett syndrome. Free Radic Biol Med. 2025; 241: 243-57.

Rett Syndrome (RTT) is a rare neurodevelopmental disorder, primarily affecting girls (1:10,000 live births), largely caused by mutations in the X-linked gene MECP2, an epigenetic regulator encoding for the methyl-CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2). Recent evidence links ferroptosis, an iron-dependent cell death characterized by lipid peroxide accumulation, to neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental disorders like autism. Several RTT hallmarks, including redox imbalance, excess labile iron, increased lipid peroxidation, and impaired antioxidant enzyme activity, align with ferroptosis characteristics. Therefore, we investigated ferroptosis’s role in RTT using human primary fibroblasts from healthy and RTT subjects, treating them with ferroptosis inducers: erastin and RSL3. Our findings show RTT cells are highly susceptible to ferroptosis, marked by elevated lipid peroxidation and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) production, crucial for ferroptotic cell death. We also observed altered iron metabolism and dysregulated ferritinophagy. RTT fibroblasts exhibited an imbalanced antioxidant defense, particularly after ferroptotic stimuli, and ferroptosis inducers worsened redox imbalance compared to controls. Importantly, a ferroptosis inhibitor (Ferrostatin-1) and a SOD mimetic (mito-TEMPO) prevented these effects and normalized the altered basal conditions of RTT cells. In conclusion, our results reveal a general dysregulation in RTT cells contributing to increased ferroptosis sensitivity. This suggests a significant role for ferroptosis in RTT pathophysiology and progression, potentially opening new therapeutic avenues for this condition.

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6. Hu C, Li W, Ruan M, Yu X, Deshpande S, Paul LK, Wang S, Li X. Exploiting large language models for diagnosing autism associated language disorders and identifying distinct features. NPJ Digit Med. 2025; 8(1): 763.

Diagnosing language disorders associated with autism is a complex challenge, often hampered by the subjective nature and variability of traditional assessment methods. In this study, we explored large language models (LLMs) to overcome the speed and precision obstacles by enhancing sensitivity and profiling linguistic features for autism diagnosis. This research utilizes natural language understanding capabilities of LLMs to simplify and improve the diagnostic process, focusing on identifying autism-related language patterns. We showed that the proposed method demonstrated improvements over the baseline models, with over a 10% increase in both sensitivity and positive predictive value in a zero-shot learning configuration. Combining accuracy and applicability, the framework could serve as a valuable supplementary tool within the diagnostic process for ASD-related language patterns. We identified ten key features of autism-associated language disorders across scenarios. Features such as echolalia, pronoun reversal, and atypical language usage play a critical role in diagnosing ASD and informing tailored treatment plans.

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7. Jang H, Bennett DH, Hoofnagle AN, Pearce EN, Tancredi DJ, Schmidt RJ, Shin HM. Prenatal Exposure to Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Maternal Thyroid Function during Pregnancy in a Cohort with High Familial Likelihood of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Environ Sci Technol. 2025; 59(49): 26408-18.

Thyroid hormones supplied by the mother are essential for fetal brain development but could be disrupted by per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). We explored how prenatal PFAS exposures relate to maternal thyroid function in pregnant participants from the MARBLES cohort. We analyzed 212 serum samples from 151 pregnant women who later had a child with diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), nontypical development (non-TD), or typical development (TD) by age 3. We quantified nine PFAS, total triiodothyronine (TT3), total thyroxine (TT4), free thyroxine (FT4), and thyroid-stimulating hormone. We used a linear mixed effect model for individual and coexposure effects and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) for mixture effects. We conducted a mixed graphical model with a child neurodevelopmental classification as an exploratory analysis. Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorohexanesulfonate (PFHxS) were associated with TT4 (per 1-unit increase in ln-transformed concentrations β [95% confidence interval, CI]: 1.005 [0.108, 1.903] for PFOS; -0.581 [-1.160, -0.002] for PFHxS) and FT4-to-TT4 ratio (-0.153 [-0.270, -0.036] for PFOS; 0.090 [0.013, 0.166] for PFHxS). In the network map, PFAS were directly and indirectly associated with non-TD diagnosis, while TT3 was conditionally associated with non-TD. These findings indicate that prenatal PFAS exposure could interfere with maternal thyroid function, potentially impacting fetal neurodevelopment.

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8. Li L, Zhang Y, Dong L, Bao C, Cheng Q, Xia G. Endoscopic single-scope placement of transendoscopic enteral tubing using a novel traction-assisted method in a child with autism spectrum disorder and refractory constipation. Endoscopy. 2025; 57(S 01): E1454-e5.

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9. Liu Y, Ma C, Zhang M, Ma X, Liu T, Jia F, Du L. Efficacy of gamified digital health interventions for children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 2025.

BACKGROUND: Autism spectrum disorder is a neurodevelopmental condition with a rising prevalence and limited effective pharmacological treatments. As non-pharmacological interventions gain traction, gamified digital health interventions have emerged as a promising alternative due to their accessibility and scalability. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the efficacy of gamified digital health interventions in improving key functional domains in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. METHODS: Following PRISMA guidelines and the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions, a systematic search was conducted in six electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, PsycINFO, and Scopus) and reference lists of relevant articles up to November 2024. A total of 21 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comprising 1,050 participants met the inclusion criteria. Standardized mean differences (SMDs) were pooled using a random-effects model, and subgroup analyses were conducted to explore the effects of different types of interventions. RESULTS: Meta-analysis revealed significant improvements in emotional skills (SMD = 0.56), social skills (SMD = 0.45), executive functions (SMD = – 0.43), and motor skills (SMD = 1.53). Subgroup analyses indicated that sensor-based games demonstrated superior efficacy. However, no significant effect was observed in reducing behavioral problems (SMD = – 0.14). CONCLUSIONS: Gamified digital health interventions show promise in enhancing emotional, social, executive, and motor skills in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Future research should focus on optimizing intervention strategies, refining behavioral outcome measures, and conducting high-quality longitudinal studies to evaluate long-term effectiveness.

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10. McCalla K, McGuire JF. Optimizing cognitive behavioral therapy to treat anxiety among youth with autism spectrum disorders. Expert Rev Neurother. 2025: 1-11.

INTRODUCTION: Anxiety disorders are among the most common co-occurring mental health conditions for autistic youth. While sometimes challenging to recognize, symptoms of anxiety can cause significant distress, functional impairment, and lead to a reduced quality of life. Thus, the effective treatment of co-occurring anxiety among autistic youth has considerable clinical importance. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has been shown to effectively treat clinically significant anxiety among children and adolescents, with specific modifications made to address challenges that often accompany autism spectrum disorders (ASD). AREAS COVERED: The authors have based this article on a comprehensive literature search that identified the extant evidence-based literature on CBT for anxiety among autistic youth in randomized controlled trials (RCTs). This review identified and synthesized modifications used to enhance treatment engagement and therapeutic efficacy. EXPERT OPINION: There are several evidence-based CBT protocols for autistic youth with anxiety disorders which include key modifications. Given the limited training opportunities in CBT for autistic youth, these protocol provide an initial framework for therapists to use when implementing CBT to treat anxiety disorders among autistic youth. It can also provide a path forward for personalized treatment approaches among this vulnerable and underserved population, as well as future directions for treatment.

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11. Medum N, Stocker T, Finkler M, Hellín López J, Edwards N, Sommers M, Gaston M, Johnson EM, Schadler A, Byars J, Griese J, Campos-Castillo C. Protocol for an undergraduate student-led scoping review of methods used to conduct inclusive focus groups with autistic adolescents. PLoS One. 2025; 20(12): e0338882.

Although focus groups gather early-stage input effectively, our initial literature review found few focus group studies conducted with autistic adolescents (ages 12-19), despite the potential for focus groups to provide a safe, peer-based setting that encourages autistic adolescent engagement in research. Scoping reviews of focus groups for children and people with disabilities exist, but not for autistic adolescents. We aim to fill this gap. Consequently, we plan to conduct a scoping review to identify the methods used to design inclusive focus groups for autistic adolescents. Because few relevant studies exist, we describe steps to search both academic databases and online sources (X, YouTube, Google). We detail how we will leverage our team composition, which is led by a large group of undergraduate students, some of whom are neurodiverse, to enhance the rigor and reproducibility of the scoping review. These steps include accounting for algorithms personalizing search results from online sources and the risk of encountering false information that could cause harm. We will analyze the results to show 1) the extent to which focus groups on autistic adolescents are conducted with autistic adolescents; 2) characteristics of autistic adolescents included in focus groups and underrepresented populations; 3) steps taken to design accessible focus groups for autistic adolescents; 4) which methods were feasible for and acceptable to autistic adolescents. The results of our scoping review will be an important step toward including input from autistic adolescents in the early stages of a project and, more broadly, in the research process.

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12. Miles MR, Golm D, Palmer-Cooper E. The association between autism and psychosis and the tools used to measure it: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Clin Psychol. 2025.

OBJECTIVES: Autistic individuals are at increased risk of psychotic experiences and being diagnosed with psychotic disorders. This association may result from methodological issues, including the misinterpretation of psychosis questionnaires by autistic individuals and clinicians’ difficulty distinguishing between the conditions. DESIGN: This meta-analysis aimed to review this association and examine whether it is moderated by the assessment measures used. METHODS: Systematic searches were conducted in PsycINFO, MEDLINE, CINAHL, Embase and Web of Science. Included studies required autism and psychosis-spectrum measurements, co-morbidity data, adult participants and quantitative data. Quality and risk of bias were assessed using the AXIS Critical Appraisal of Cross-Sectional Studies tool. Analyses examined correlations, odds ratios and Cohen’s d as effects. RESULTS: Sixty-three papers (N = 6,903,960) were included. Associations were found between autistic and overall (r = .435, p < .0001), positive (r = .274, p < .0001), negative (r = .506, p < .0001) and disorganized (r = .366, p < .0001) psychosis-spectrum traits. Individuals with one condition had an increased risk of being diagnosed with the other (OR = 7.03, p < .001) and scored higher on trait measures of the other (d = 1.187, p < .0001). CONCLUSIONS: These meta-analyses evidence a strong association between autism and the psychosis spectrum, at both trait and diagnostic levels. Negative psychosis-spectrum traits were most strongly linked with autistic traits, while measures of positive traits showed weaker correlations, suggesting overlaps in expression and measurement. High heterogeneity and inconsistent reporting, however, hinder the certainty of conclusions, and research is required to better understand this overlap.

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13. Möhrle D, Ma D, Xue W, Yan J, Cheng N. Altered Auditory Maturation in Fragile X Syndrome and Its Involvement in Audiogenic Seizure Susceptibility. Autism Res. 2025.

Auditory hypersensitivity is a prominent symptom in Fragile X syndrome (FXS), the most prevalent monogenic cause of autism and intellectual disability. FXS arises through the loss of the protein encoded by the FMR1 (Fragile X Messenger Ribonucleoprotein 1) gene, FMRP, required for normal neural circuit excitability. In the brainstem, FMRP is necessary for normal development of acoustic reactivity, and its loss has been implicated in audiogenic seizures (AGS) in Fmr1 knockout (KO) mice, modeling auditory hypersensitivity and seizures in FXS patients. The present study investigated the correlation between auditory brainstem function and behavioral expression of AGS at the early (postnatal day P20, infancy) and late (P32, juvenile) stages of auditory development in Fmr1 KO mice compared with wildtype (WT) mice, and in both females and males. We tested responsiveness to pure tones of select auditory pathway elements through auditory brainstem responses, and neural synchronization to amplitude envelopes of modulated acoustic stimuli through auditory steady-state responses. AGS behavior was categorized for severity during 5-min exposure to loud sound. Expression of the immediate early gene cFos was quantified as a marker for neuronal activity in the inferior colliculus. During infancy, more severe AGS expression in Fmr1 KO mice compared with WT mice was accompanied by increased responsiveness to acoustic stimuli at the level of the superior olivary complex and inferior colliculus, and stronger neural synchronicity in subcortical auditory neurons. Fmr1 KO mice also had higher cFos positive cell counts in the inferior colliculus after exposure to loud sound. With age, both AGS susceptibility and exaggerated acoustic stimulus-evoked activity in the Fmr1 KO mice subsided. Intriguingly, Fmr1 KO mice displayed an altered developmental profile in both the threshold and amplitude of auditory brainstem response. Our findings support evidence that AGS activity relies upon hyperexcitability in the auditory system, including in the lower brainstem, possibly due to disturbed auditory maturation. Hyper-synchronization to modulated sounds in subcortical auditory neurons seemed to predict AGS severity. The developmental trajectory of the auditory hyperresponsiveness and hypersynchrony suggests a transient processing alteration underlying heightened AGS susceptibility in Fmr1 KO mice. A better understanding of FXS-related circuit and behavioral symptoms of auditory processing across development provides the potential to identify therapeutic strategies to achieve auditory function recovery in FXS. Many people with Fragile X syndrome, a genetic condition linked to autism, experience heightened sensitivity to everyday sounds. In this study, we found that young mice with a genetic model of this condition showed stronger responses to sound in certain brain areas involved in hearing, which may explain their heightened reactions to loud noises. These brain responses and sound sensitivity lessened with age, suggesting that early development may be an important period for addressing sound sensitivity through targeted approaches. eng.

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14. Novoselova K, Lopukhina A, Gomozova M, Fedorov M, Davydova E, Pereverzeva D, Sorokin A, Tyushkevich S, Mamokhina U, Danilina K, Dragoy O, Arutiunian V. Difference in Language Profiles of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder and Down Syndrome Is Not Driven by Non-Verbal Cognition. Int J Lang Commun Disord. 2026; 61(1): e70177.

BACKGROUND: Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Down syndrome (DS) are among the most common types of neurodevelopmental conditions that have co-occurring language impairments. Usually, non-verbal IQ has been reported as one of the main predictors of language functioning in children with these conditions. Although language abilities of children with ASD and DS have been described in the previous studies, there is still a lack of direct comparisons of language profiles in the non-verbal IQ-matched groups of children with these disorders, and, therefore, it is largely unexplored whether language difficulties in these populations are of similar or different origins. AIMS: The study provided a direct comparison of language profiles in non-verbal IQ-matched children with ASD and DS at different linguistic levels (phonology, vocabulary and morphosyntax) in both production and comprehension and explored the influence of different psycholinguistic variables on accuracy. Also, the study assessed whether non-language factors (non-verbal IQ and age) influence language skills in both groups of children. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: In total, 60 children participated in the study: 20 children with ASD, 20 children with DS and 20 typically developing controls (7-11 years old; all groups were age-matched). The language testing included seven tests from the Russian Child Language Assessment Battery, assessing expressive and receptive language skills at phonological, lexical and morphosyntactic levels. OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: Overall, we revealed both similarities and differences in language profiles between children with ASD and DS. At the group performance level, children with ASD and DS were comparable in vocabulary and syntax but differed in phonological processing, on which children with ASD had higher accuracy. Some psycholinguistic variables that influenced accuracy in language test performance were present uniquely in the ASD group: for example, autistic children struggled more with verbs than nouns in naming or comprehended sentences with canonical SVO word order more accurately than sentences with noncanonical OVS word order. In comparison to children with DS, in the ASD group, non-verbal IQ was related to language skills in three out of seven tests, with evidence of a positive association between them. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: This study provided new insights on the differences in language profiles of non-verbal IQ-matched children with ASD and DS and identified specific impairments related to linguistic levels and structural language characteristics in each group. These findings contributed to speech and language therapy strategies, as they highlighted specific ‘linguistic deficits’ that should be targeted during intervention and therapy. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on this subject Language profiles of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Down syndrome (DS) have been described in previous studies on different languages. Usually, non-verbal IQ has been reported as one of the main predictors of language functioning in these groups of individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders. However, there is a lack of direct comparisons of language profiles at different linguistic levels in these groups, matched by non-verbal IQ and using standardized language assessment tools to understand whether the nature of language impairments is common or different in ASD and DS regardless of non-verbal cognition. What this study adds to the existing knowledge This study provided a direct comparison of language profiles at different linguistic levels in children with ASD and DS matched by non-verbal IQ. This identified similarities and differences in language functioning at different linguistic levels in children with ASD and DS as well as revealed non-language factors that were associated with language abilities. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? The study showed the differences in language profiles of children with ASD and DS regardless of non-verbal IQ and identified specific impairments related to linguistic levels and structural language characteristics. This knowledge contributes to speech and language therapy strategies, as it elucidates specific ‘linguistic deficits’ that should be targeted during intervention and therapy.

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15. Pant S. AAP: Leucovorin Not Recommended for Autism. Jama. 2025; 334(23): 2061.

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16. Saad K, Hussain SA, Ahmad AR, Elfarargy MS, Elhoufey A, Al-Atram AA, Abdelal AN, Mohamed KR, Embaby MM. The evolving role of machine learning in autism spectrum disorder: current evidence and future directions. Pediatr Res. 2025.

Machine learning (ML) has become a key factor in advancing artificial intelligence (AI)-driven strategies across various areas in recent years, including screening, diagnosis, subtyping, and therapeutic intervention in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). These technological advancements collectively demonstrate ML’s potential to complement-rather than replace-expert clinical assessment in the screening and diagnosis of ASD. Future research should focus on standardizing data collection procedures, improving the interpretability of models, and conducting multi-center validation studies to confirm their effectiveness and applicability in real-world settings.

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17. Stahmer AC, Lau AS, Roesch S, Rangel E, Aarons GA, Brookman-Frazee L. Understanding mechanisms of multi-level implementation strategies for autism interventions in a randomized trial across service systems. Implement Sci. 2025; 20(1): 54.

BACKGROUND: Understanding the effectiveness of implementation strategies to support uptake of evidence-based interventions (EBIs) requires examining activation of mechanisms targeted by implementation strategies. This study uses data from the TEAMS (Translating Evidence-Based Interventions for Autism) hybrid type III implementation-effectiveness trial to examine whether leader-level and provider-level implementation strategies, when paired with provider training in AIM HI (An Individualized Mental Health Intervention for Autism) in mental health programs (Study 1) and CPRT (Classroom Pivotal Response Teaching) in schools (Study 2) successfully activated proposed implementation mechanisms (3 for leader level strategy and 2 for the provider-level strategy). We also examined whether any of the identified mechanisms associated with the leader-level strategy mediated the previously reported effect of the strategy on implementation and child outcomes. METHODS: Organizations were randomized to receive a leader-level strategy (TEAMS Leadership Institute [TLI]), provider strategy, both strategies, or neither strategy (EBI provider training only). Leader participants were recruited from enrolled programs/districts and then supported recruitment of provider/child dyads. Children ranged in age from 3 to 13 years. The combined sample included 65 programs/districts, 95 TLI leaders, and 385 providers/child dyads. Multi-level modeling was used to test hypotheses. The hypothesized mechanisms were implementation leadership, implementation climate, and implementation support strategies for TLI and EBI attitudes and motivation for training for TIPS. RESULTS: The leader-level strategy engaged the most proximal of the three hypothesized mechanisms (implementation support strategies). The provider-level intervention did not engage any of the hypothesized mechanisms. There was an interaction between the leader-level and provider-level strategies on implementation climate and provider motivation mechanisms favoring groups that received both implementation strategies compared to those that only received the provider-level strategy. No mechanisms significantly mediated the effect of the leader-level strategy on implementation or clinical outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides support that a brief implementation leadership and climate training, TLI, increases leader use of specific actions to promote autism EBIs across two public service systems, children’s mental health and public education. This does not fully account for strategy effects on fidelity or clinical outcomes. Findings advance the study of implementation mechanisms by examining how leadership training might work and identifying a clear need to focus on leader-level implementation strategies in these systems of care. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03380078.

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18. Thomas K, Cooper K. Commentary: Interpreting diagnostic data on autism and gender dysphoria: clinical and research implications – a commentary on Sanders et al. (2025). Child Adolesc Ment Health. 2025.

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19. Veilleux C, Erenben ED, Ismail N. Autism and hormones: A perspective from the immune system and the gut microbiome. Horm Behav. 2025; 177: 105867.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) affects 2.7 % of individuals worldwide, and it is characterized by abnormal social interactions, communication deficits, restricted interactions, and repetitive behaviors. This disorder appears early in life, and it has been diagnosed more frequently in males than in females. Several factors have been shown to be associated with the onset of ASD. However, the mechanisms underlying the onset of this neurodevelopmental disorder and the higher prevalence in males remain unclear. This review discusses the role of hormonal imbalances, immune system activation during the prenatal (maternal immune activation) and the neonatal periods (neonatal immune activation), immune dysregulation and gut dysbiosis in the development of ASD. It also highlights the many interactions between these systems and demonstrates the true complexity of this disorder.

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