1. Crockford SK, Gibson JL, Katsos N. Surveying the Language Switching Behaviours of Multilingual Autistic and Non-Autistic Adults. J Autism Dev Disord;2025 (Oct 18)

PURPOSE: Whilst research in multilingualism and autism is increasing, there is still a gap when it comes to understanding how multilingual autistic individuals use their multiple languages. The aim of this research was to survey these linguistic behaviours from a self-report perspective and compare them to non-autistic multilingual individuals. METHODS: We collected data from 364 participants of which 177 (autistic = 98; mean age = 44.5, non-autistic = 79; mean age = 42.2) were included in the final analysis. Multilingual usage and switching behaviour were measured through an online questionnaire made available on Qualtrics, developed for the purpose of this research. RESULTS: The questionnaire revealed that autistic participants rated themselves as more multilingual, based on number of languages known, and used their respective languages more than non-autistic participants, although they reported switching between their languages as more effortful than non-autistic participants. A large portion of autistic individuals also reported using a non-native language daily and a similar number of autistic and non-autistic participants reported having lived in a country where their first or second language was spoken. Overall, autistic participants reported comparable or more multilingual language usage than non-autistic participants. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this research demonstrate that speaking autistic adults are, as one might intuitively expect, living active multilingual lives comparable to their typical peers. Future research should further investigate the rapport autistic multilingual individuals have with their linguistic communities via their language usage and the cognitive flexibility that may be associated with living multilingual and cross-national lives.

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2. Davoody S, Mansouri M, Houri H. Potential of Limosilactobacillus reuteri in Modulating Neuroplasticity and Ameliorating Behavioral Deficits in a Maternal Separation Rat Model of Autism. J Nutr Biochem;2025 (Oct 15):110143.

Limosilactobacillus reuteri has attracted attention for its potential to modulate the gut-brain axis. This study investigates whether L. reuteri administration mitigates autism-related abnormalities in a maternal separation rat model of autism. Male Wistar rats were divided into maternal-separated L. reuteri-treated (MS+LR), maternal-separated placebo-treated (MS), and non-separated control groups. Behavioral assessments evaluated autism-related behaviors, including social interaction, repetitive behavior, anxiety, and hyperactivity. Immunohistochemical analysis of the hypothalamus assessed oxytocin expression, while 3D stereological analysis of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) examined brain structure in the infralimbic (IL) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Absolute quantification of fecal L. reuteri was performed using quantitative real-time PCR. The MS+LR group showed significantly higher L. reuteri colonization, improved social behaviors, and reduced repetitive behaviors. Immunohistochemical findings revealed normalized oxytocin expression in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the MS+LR group, suggesting a neurobiological mechanism. The IL volume and neuron number in the MS group were significantly increased compared to the control and MS+LR groups, while the ACC volume and neuron number were significantly decreased. These findings suggest that L. reuteri ameliorates autism-like symptoms induced by maternal separation by modulating brain structure through oxytocin-dependent pathways.

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3. Jan S, Steinway C, Brensinger C, Teng O, Chen J, Liu Q, Shults J. State-based variations in risk of institutional placement among dually eligible non-elderly adults with intellectual / developmental disabilities. Disabil Health J;2025 (Oct 4):101973.

BACKGROUND: Long-term services and supports (LTSS) include various paid institutional and personal care, comprising nearly 28.3 % of Medicaid spending, with significant variability in home and community-based services (HCBS) eligibility across states. OBJECTIVE: To examine the impact of state of residence and HCBS spend on risk of institutional placement on a particularly vulnerable population, dual-eligible non-elderly adults with intellectual/developmental disabilities (IDD). METHODS: A retrospective cohort study was conducted to determine the hazard ratio of institutional placement based on Medicaid and Medicare data. We examined CMS Medicaid Analytic eXtract files with linked 2008-2012 Medicare data from California, Florida, New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. Eligible participants were 159,275 dual-eligible adults aged 18-to-64 years living in community settings who were continuously enrolled in Medicaid and had ICD-9 codes for ID in any inpatient, outpatient, or long-term encounter. RESULTS: Among study participants, 4.4 % (n = 6975) had an eventual institutional placement claim. Subjects with institutional placement were more likely to be older, female, sicker, and have more claims for acute, ambulatory, and short-term care. In both unadjusted and adjusted analysis, risk of institutional placement was highest among those living in Ohio (HR 1.86 [1.70-2.04], P < 0.0001) and California (HR 1.50 [1.37-1.64], P < 0.0001) compared to Florida. Risk was lower for every $10,000 increase in HCBS spend at baseline. Black, Hispanic, and Other subjects had lower risks than While subjects, CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that continued investments in HCBS and better access may decrease reliance on costly institutional care for non-elderly disabled adults who may need long-term care for decades.

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4. Kosaki Y, Mihara R. Context blindness in the BTBR T(+) tf mouse model of autism: impaired contextual control of discrimination reversal learning. Behav Brain Res;2025 (Oct 18);495:115752.

Behavioural inflexibility-a hallmark of autism spectrum disorder (ASD)-can be characterised by the persistence of established behaviours in inappropriate contexts. This inflexibility may arise from a reduced ability to use contextual information to disambiguate effective contingencies, thereby impeding the flexible expression of instrumental behaviour in a contextually appropriate manner. In this study, we employed the BTBR T(+) tf inbred mouse model of ASD to examine whether contextual control of behaviour is impaired in these mice. BTBR and control C57BL/6J (B6) mice were first trained on a T-maze positional discrimination task, after which they were subjected to a reversal task conducted in either the same or a different maze context. The contextual shift significantly facilitated the acquisition of reversal discrimination in B6 mice, whereas it had no effect on BTBR mice. The lack of contextual control resulted in poorer reversal performance in BTBR in the new context, while both strains performed comparably when the context remained unchanged. A subsequent experiment ruled out the possibility that BTBR mice were simply unable to differentiate between the two maze contexts, as they demonstrated normal differential contextual conditioning. Overall, these findings suggest that BTBR mice are critically impaired in utilising contextual cues to disambiguate the effective stimulus-response-outcome contingencies in a hierarchical manner. This supports the notion that « context blindness » is a core deficit in ASD and warrants further investigation into its neurobiological underpinnings.

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5. Liu H, Li T, Qin R, Li L, Ji C, Yuan X, Chen B, Li C, Wang X. Altered gray matter networks in the co-occurrence of autism spectrum disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Behav Brain Res;2025 (Oct 18);495:115787.

Although the comorbidity of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (ASD+ADHD) is prevalent, the neurobiological mechanisms underlying this combined condition are not yet fully understood. Both ASD and ADHD have been associated with alterations in gray matter (GM) structural networks, suggesting that such altered GM networks may serve as potential markers for identifying this comorbid disorder. In this study, we compared the GM structural networks in ASD+ADHD, ASD without ADHD (ASD-only), ADHD without ASD (ADHD-only), and typically developing controls (TDc). Structural magnetic resonance imaging data of 41 individuals with ASD+ADHD, 53 individuals with ASD-only, 40 individuals with ADHD-only, and 62 TDc were obtained from the Autism Brain Imaging Data Exchange II and the ADHD-200 Sample databases. Graph theory analysis was employed to construct individual GM structural networks for each participant, followed by the calculation of topological metrics based on these networks. Our analysis revealed both common and disorder-specific nodal centralities alterations across the ASD+ADHD, ASD-only, and ADHD-only groups, compared with TDc. A significant correlation was found between the severity of symptoms and altered nodal centralities in the amygdala in the ASD+ADHD group. These findings support the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5 diagnosis of ASD+ADHD. Moreover, these findings provide novel neurobiological evidence for the ASD+ADHD comorbid state, which could lead to more targeted diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.

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6. Long Z, Liu J, Sun R. High-quality randomised controlled trials of acupuncture interventions for autism spectrum disorder in the last 10 years (2015-2024): A literature review. Curr Opin Pharmacol;2025 (Sep 26);85:102579.

The efficacy of acupuncture as a nonpharmacological therapy for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has been increasingly studied. To evaluate the current research methodologies and outcome measures in randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of acupuncture for ASD, we systematically searched eight major databases for relevant Chinese and English language literature published between 1 January 2015 and 31 December 2024. A total of 31 relevant studies were included in the literature review. Studies on acupuncture interventions for ASD were categorised into two- or three-arm designs, primarily employing indirect controls. Interventions predominantly utilised head acupoints for 12 weeks, and the acupuncture techniques were mainly tonifying and reducing techniques with moderate stimulation. Outcome indicators (n = 37) were categorised into six domains, selected a total of 111 times: symptoms and signs (59.46 %), physical and chemical test indicators (20.72 %), quality of life (8.11 %), safety events (7.21 %), functional status (2.70 %), and Chinese medical symptoms/syndrome (2.70 %). The Childhood Autism Rating Scale had the highest reporting rate among the indicators (23.24 %). Measurements were predominantly performed before treatment, post-treatment, and at the 12-week follow-up visit. Current evidence from RCTs on acupuncture for ASD is limited, restricting the clinical implementation of acupuncture protocols. Future high-quality studies should focus on standardising clinical trial designs, minimising bias, establishing consensus-driven outcome measurement selection, and developing a core outcome set for acupuncture in patients with ASD. These steps are essential for enhancing the methodological rigor and clinical relevance of acupuncture research in ASD.

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7. Lotsky I, Sukenik N, Reznick J. Exploring the morphological and morpho-syntactic abilities of adolescents with autism. J Commun Disord;2025 (Aug 9);118:106560.

This study examined the morphological and morpho-syntactic abilities of Hebrew-speaking adolescents with and without ASD. The participants consisted of 59 adolescents, divided into two groups: 29 with ASD (5 girls, 24 boys, ages 14-18) and 30 typically developing (TD) peers (9 girls, 21 boys, ages 14-18). Assessments included measures of non-verbal intelligence, vocabulary, and the production of morphological and morpho-syntactic structures. Group comparisons and correlations between background variables and performance on morphological and morpho-syntactic tasks were conducted. Additionally, individual analyses were performed to identify language profiles within the ASD group. The results revealed significant differences favoring TD adolescents in tasks related to past tense verb inflection, as well as mixed-tense verb inflection. Both groups found tasks involving regular components to be easier. In both groups, vocabulary was correlated with performance on various morphological and morpho-syntactic tasks. Alongside some similarities in the hierarchy of task difficulty across the two groups, notable differences in this hierarchy were also observed. Two distinct language profiles were identified among the adolescents with ASD. The study underscores the importance of tailored language assessments and targeted interventions and recommends longitudinal studies to determine whether these challenges are the result of developmental delays or persistent deficits.

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8. Lu D, Liang Y, Huang X, Wei A, Lan Z, Xu J. Multi-omics causal inference of nuclear-encoded mitochondrial genes in autism spectrum disorder. J Affect Disord;2025 (Oct 15):120428.

BACKGROUND: Mitochondrial dysfunction is increasingly implicated in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), yet its causal genetic basis remains unclear. Mitochondria are maternally inherited organelles essential for neurodevelopment and cellular energy homeostasis, while most mitochondrial proteins are nuclear-encoded and follow Mendelian inheritance. Clarifying how genetically regulated mitochondrial gene activity relates to ASD risk may provide new mechanistic insight. METHODS: We applied a multi-omics Mendelian randomization (MR) framework integrating methylation (mQTL), expression (eQTL; blood and 12 GTEx brain regions), and protein (pQTL) datasets. We used summary-data-based MR (SMR) with HEIDI to exclude LD-driven signals and Bayesian colocalization (PPH4 > 0.70) to require a shared causal variant. Where independent cis instruments were available, two-sample MR estimated effects and assessed robustness. ASD outcomes came from IEU-802, IEU-806, and FinnGen GWAS. RESULTS: Convergent evidence highlighted three mitochondria-related genes. CRAT and PRDX6 showed cross-layer support in specific datasets (mQTL/eQTL/pQTL) with overall protective associations. TMEM177 was supported across mQTL and eQTL and exhibited tissue-specific divergence-risk-increasing associations in cerebellar/cortical regions but protective associations in peripheral blood. TMEM177’s biology is consistent with a role in complex IV (COX2) assembly, CRAT regulates acetyl-CoA buffering and metabolic flexibility, and PRDX6 contributes to redox homeostasis and membrane repair. Locus-specific CpG variation was directionally aligned with gene expression and ASD risk. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings support a structure-metabolism-redox axis-TMEM177, CRAT, and PRDX6-linking mitochondrial regulation to ASD susceptibility.

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9. Moreira C, Simões C, Oliveira A, Shogren K, Haiwara M, Pereira A, Rosário P, Gomes R, Gomes F, Santos S. Exploring the interplay between adaptive behavior, support needs, quality of life, and self-determination with persons with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Res Dev Disabil;2025 (Oct 16);166:105126.

This study examined the correlations between adaptive behavior, support needs, quality of life (QOL), and self-determination in adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD). The sample comprised 80 adults (>18 y, 27 ± 13.8), 40 women and 40 men, with mild and moderate IDD, all institutionalized. Portuguese versions of four instruments were administered: Adaptive Behavior Scale, Supports Intensity Scale, Personal Outcomes Scale, and Self-Determination Inventory. These were administered to better understand how these constructs interact with and influence one another in real-life contexts. The correlations between self-determination and adaptive behavior were weak to moderate, highlighting a more complex and possibly indirect relationship between these two constructs. Self-determination showed negative correlations with support needs, indicating that individuals with more supports need may face more barriers to acting autonomously or making meaningful choices. The findings revealed significant and positive correlations between the core components and essential characteristics of self-determination and various QOL domains. This suggests that individuals who report a higher QOL also tend to demonstrate greater self-determined behavior and are more likely to engage in volitional behavior. Notably, both QOL and support needs emerged as significant and robust predictors of self-determination, underscoring the central role played by contextual and environmental factors in shaping one’s capacity to act with agency. These findings underscore the importance of fostering environments that not only reduce unnecessary support dependence, but also actively promote QOL, autonomy, and meaningful participation. Thus, services and policies can more effectively support the realization of self-determination for people with IDD.

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10. Noppari T, Tuisku J, Lukkarinen L, Tani P, Lindberg N, Saure E, Lauerma H, Tiihonen J, Hirvonen J, Helin S, Rajander J, Salmi J, Nummenmaa L. Aberrant type 2 dopamine and mu-opioid receptor availability in autism spectrum disorder. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging;2025 (Oct 18)

PURPOSE: Opioid and dopamine receptor systems are implicated in the pathoetiology of autism, but in vivo human brain imaging evidence for their role remains elusive. METHODS: Here, we investigated regional type 2 dopamine and mu-opioid receptor (D2R and MOR, respectively) availabilities and regional interactions between the two neuromodulatory systems associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In vivo positron emission tomography (PET) with radioligands [11 C]raclopride (D2R) and [11 C]carfentanil (MOR) was carried out in 16 adult males with high functioning ASD and 24 age and sex matched controls. A whole brain voxel-wise analysis was tested with Student´s t-test and regional group differences in D2R and MOR receptor availabilities as total and separate were tested with linear mixed models also examining the associations between regional receptor availabilities with correlations. RESULTS: There were no group differences in whole-brain voxel-wise analysis of D2R, but ROI analysis revealed a lower overall mean availability in striatum of the ASD compared to controls. Post hoc regional analysis revealed reduced D2R availability in nucleus accumbens and globus pallidus of the ASD group. The whole-brain voxel-wise analysis of MOR revealed cuneal/precuneal up-regulation in the ASD group, but there was no overall group difference in the ROI analysis for MOR. MOR down-regulation was observed in the hippocampi of the ASD group in a post hoc analysis. Regional correlations between D2R and MOR availabilities were weaker in the ASD group versus control group in the amygdala and nucleus accumbens. CONCLUSIONS: These alterations may translate to disrupted modulation of social motivation and reward in ASD.

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11. Radey M, Anderson KA, LaPoint SC, Dolce E, Killian MO. Young Adulthood Milestones and Supports Within the Context of Autism. J Autism Dev Disord;2025 (Oct 18)

PURPOSE: The transition from childhood to adulthood is a critical developmental period in which individuals encounter profound social, institutional, and personal shifts. A diagnosis of autism can introduce unique challenges during the transition. The study described the living conditions and adult milestones of transition-age autistic young adults and compared them to their peers without autism. METHODS: The analysis used Year 22 data from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS) dataset, a national, longitudinal cohort study of children born in U.S. cities in 1998-2000. FINDINGS: At age 22, autistic young adults were significantly more likely to report poor physical and mental health, life dissatisfaction, additional disabilities, and public assistance use compared to their non-autistic peers. Across a range of adulthood markers, including romantic relationships, independent living, full-time employment, and financial self-sufficiency, autistic young adults were less likely to achieve traditional adult milestones. CONCLUSIONS: The transition to adulthood remains a period of heightened vulnerability for autistic youth. Addressing these disparities will require not only improved transition planning at the individual level but also structural investments that expand access to housing, healthcare, income supports, and meaningful community inclusion.

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12. Rattan SA, Zaid MHA, Suhail NJ, Jameel DI, Abdulrahman DA. Refractive Errors and Vision Problems in Autistic Children: Insights into Parental Awareness in Iraq. J Autism Dev Disord;2025 (Oct 18)

PURPOSE: To evaluate parental awareness of vision problems in children with ASD. METHODS: This descriptive study included parents/caregivers of ASD children attending autism diagnosis and rehabilitation centers in Baghdad between October 2023 and April 2024. Eligible participants lived with and provided daily care for the child. Data was collected through structured interviews covering three domains: (A) demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, (B) observed visual problems in children, and (C) knowledge of visual impairment and its impact. RESULTS: A total of 123 parents and caregivers participated, 65% of whom were recruited from three major centers: the National Center for Autism, Al Safa Institute, and Baghdad Governmental Center for Autism. Biological parents comprised 97.6% of the sample; 2.4% were kinship caregivers. Parents/caregivers reported that 49.6% of children had been diagnosed with visual impairments, while 20 out of 62 (16.3%) of undiagnosed children exhibited behavioral signs of vision issues, including close screen proximity. Refractive errors (43.9%) and ocular misalignments (26.8%) were most common, with myopia (33.3%) being the leading diagnosis. Awareness scores indicated that 35 (28.5%) had poor awareness, 65(52.8%) moderate, and 23 (18.7%) good. Caregivers had significantly higher awareness than biological parents (P = 0.006), while employed respondents showed lower awareness levels (P = 0.015). CONCLUSION: Children with ASD are prone to undiagnosed visual impairments; however, a considerable proportion of parents were completely unaware of this issue. Enhancing parental awareness and integrating interdisciplinary vision screening into publicly funded ASD services are vital for early detection, prevention, and long-term management.

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13. Roisenberg BB, Boulton KA, Thomas EE, Perry N, Yu D, Guastella AJ. Autistic adults’ experiences of cognitive-behavioural group therapy for social anxiety: Relational experiences of participation. Autism;2025 (Oct 18):13623613251377930.

Autistic adults often report high levels of social anxiety and significant life impacts from this anxiety on well-being and functioning. Although cognitive-behavioural therapy in group settings has been adapted for autistic populations, there is a paucity of research exploring how autistic individuals experience CBT interventions. This qualitative study investigated autistic adults’ experiences of a modified cognitive-behavioural therapy group programme for social anxiety. Twenty-seven autistic participants were recruited through clinical services and community outreach. Following the intervention, participants completed semi-structured individual interviews about their experience of the programme. Participants reported both therapeutic benefits and challenges following their participation. Themes included reflections on group dynamics, mental health impacts, social functioning and daily life applications of strategies. Peer connection emerged as a core facilitator of engagement, while structured strategies were credited with bolstering social confidence and self-awareness. However, challenges, such as sensory sensitivities, the role of previous therapeutic experiences and difficulties applying strategies beyond the therapy context, were also highlighted.Lay AbstractAutistic adults often report high levels of social anxiety. To support autistic people with social anxiety, we developed a group therapy programme, the Engage Program, an intervention designed specifically for autistic adults. Our study aimed to better understand what it is like for autistic adults to take part in group therapy and what aspects of the programme were most helpful, or not. The programme aimed to provide a safe space where participants could explore social interactions in a way that felt comfortable and authentic. Rather than encouraging people to hide or ‘camouflage’ their autistic traits, the programme focused on building confidence, self-understanding and meaningful connections with peers. Sessions included guided discussions, structured activities and shared experiences. We interviewed participants who had completed the group programme to hear directly from them about their experiences. Many said they felt less alone and more socially confident after taking part in the group. They appreciated connecting with others who understood their experiences, and they said this helped them feel more accepted and supported. They also reported that participating in the group helped them understand their social strengths and challenges more clearly. However, not everything worked for everyone. Some participants found aspects of the therapy challenging, especially if they had sensory sensitivities or difficult past experiences with therapy. In the future, we want to explore how to make group therapy more flexible and accessible, especially for those who may struggle in traditional settings. This research shows that group therapy can be a powerful way to support autistic adults, especially when it is designed with their needs and preferences in mind.

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14. Vilela J, Pereira AC, Violante IR, Mouga S, Rasga C, Santos JX, Martiniano H, Marques AR, Oliveira G, Castelo-Branco M, Vicente AM. Neurometabolic profiles of autism spectrum disorder patients with genetic variants in specific neurotransmission and synaptic genes. Sci Rep;2025 (Oct 17);15(1):36318.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by impaired social interaction, and restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior. ASD presents as a clinical spectrum, with variable levels of severity and multiple co-occurring conditions. The etiology of ASD may involve hundreds of genes and there is evidence that neurotransmitter and synaptic (NS) pathways are implicated. Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy ((1)H-MRS) has made it possible to study the concentration of brain neurometabolites and compare their levels in the brains of ASD and control individuals. We integrated genetic variants in NS genes with (1)H-MRS analysis, and identified 12 predicted damaging variants (PDVs) in 12 NS genes in 10 ASD individuals, most mapping to genes involved in Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate pathways. Total creatine (tCr) and total N-acetyl aspartate (tNAA), markers of bioenergetics and neuronal metabolism, respectively, were lower in ASD patients with genetic alterations in NS genes compared to a control group without ASD. We conclude that PDVs in NS genes that are important for the regulation of glutamate or involved in GABAergic functions are associated with neurometabolic alterations, and that dysfunction in glutamatergic and/or GABAergic pathways may be implicated as these pathways are linked to the metabolic measures altered in cases.

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15. Wang NY, Zhu ZY, Jiao ZY, Pan NR, Baig MMI, Qiu AW, Zhang WW. Ocular manifestations in autism spectrum disorder. Int J Ophthalmol;2025;18(10):2000-2006.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) represents a neurodevelopmental disorder that has been the focus of numerous studies on the central nervous system (CNS). The embryological origin of the brain and retina is shared, with the axons of retinal ganglion cells (RGC) developing into the optic nerves that enter the brain through the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus, LGN, and other visual cortices. Given the evidence that individuals with ASD exhibit impairments in the visual mechanisms, including deficits in emotional face recognition, and difficulty in maintaining gaze control as well as eye contact, some studies have documented retinal alterations in individuals with ASD. These have been identified through ophthalmic assessments, including optical coherence tomography (OCT), optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA), and electroretinography (ERG). With the improvements in ASD animal models, it is possible to obtain a better understanding of vision dysfunction in ASD by analyzing the molecular mechanisms of retinal function and structure abnormalities. This review aims to provide a summary of the recent research on ocular alterations in ASD patients and animal models, intending to contribute to further investigation of the eye-brain connection and communication.

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16. Zhang J. Navigating autistic empathy: phenomenological perspectives and debates. Med Health Care Philos;2025 (Oct 18)

This paper re-examines phenomenological accounts of autism in light of the double empathy theory. I fully endorse the compelling critique by contemporary phenomenologists such as Gallagher, Fuchs, and Zahavi of the Theory of Mind framework, as they ground autistic social difficulties in impairments of primary and secondary intersubjectivity. However, their analyses tend to underemphasize or overlook the reciprocal structure of empathy, an aspect that is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of autistic-allistic social interactions. This omission has been rightly criticized by proponents of the double empathy theory, such as Rizzo and Ekdahl, who emphasize that social breakdowns between autistic and allistic individuals are bidirectional. Drawing on Husserl’s classical phenomenology of empathy, I argue that a deeper phenomenological understanding reveals empathy to be inherently reciprocal and co-constituted. Thus, Husserlian phenomenology not only aligns with the core insights of the double empathy theory but also offers a conceptual foundation for rethinking autistic experience beyond unidirectional deficit models.

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