1. Abate BB, Tusa BS, Sendekie AK, Temesgen D, Mekuria K, Alamaw AW, Azmeraw M, Zemariam AB, Kitaw TA, Kassaw A, Abebe GK, Tilahun BD, Yilak G, Adisu MA, Dachew B. The association between maternal prenatal folic acid and multivitamin supplementation and autism spectrum disorders in offspring: An umbrella review. PLoS One. 2025; 20(11): e0334852.

BACKGROUND: Previous reviews have examined the association between maternal prenatal use of folic acid and multivitamin supplements and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in children, but findings remain inconclusive. This umbrella review aims to synthesise the existing evidence on the association between prenatal folic acid and multivitamin supplementation and the risk of ASD in offspring. METHODS: This umbrella review followed the PRISMA guidelines to synthesise and report evidence from existing systematic reviews and meta-analyses (SRMs). Articles were searched in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. The quality of included studies was assessed using the Assessment of Multiple Systematic Reviews (AMSTAR). A weighted inverse variance random-effects model was applied to estimate pooled effects. The association was quantified using relative risks (RRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Subgroup analysis and sensitivity analysis were also conducted. Heterogeneity and publication bias were assessed. RESULTS: Eight SRMs comprising 101 primary studies and over three million mother-offspring pairs were included. Prenatal folic acid and/or multivitamin supplementation was associated with a 30% reduced risk of ASD in offspring (RR = 0.70, 95% CI: 0.62, 0.78; GRADE: highly suggestive). Subgroup analysis by supplement type showed that maternal prenatal multivitamin supplementation reduced the risk of ASD by 34% (RR = 0.66, 95% CI: 0.55-0.80; GRADE: highly suggestive), while folic acid supplementation was associated with a 30% reduction in ASD risk (RR = 0.70, 95% CI: 0.60-0.83; GRADE: highly suggestive). CONCLUSION: Maternal prenatal folic acid and multivitamin supplementation are associated with a reduced risk of ASD in offspring. These findings have important public health implications, suggesting that prenatal supplementation could help mitigate the risk of ASD in children.

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2. Akemoğlu Y, Hinton V. Early Interventionist-Guided and Parent-Implemented Behavior Support To Reduce Challenging Behaviors of Autistic Children. J Autism Dev Disord. 2025.

PURPOSE: Challenging behaviors (CB), including aggression, tantrums, and noncompliance, are common among children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and can significantly affect family well-being and child development. This pilot study examined the effectiveness of a hybrid intervention model that combined early intervention service provider (EISP) coaching with parent-implemented, function-based behavior support strategies. METHOD: Three EISPs delivered structured home visits that included video-based behavioral training modules to three families of young autistic children exhibiting persistent CB. A nonconcurrent multiple-probe across parent-child dyads design was used to evaluate parent fidelity in implementing behavior support plans and corresponding changes in child CB. RESULTS: Results indicated that exposure to video modules alone produced minimal improvements in parent fidelity. However, the addition of individualized EISP coaching led to immediate and sustained increases in parent fidelity, accompanied by notable reductions in child CB across all participants. Social validity data reflected high parental satisfaction with the intervention procedures and outcomes. CONCLUSION: Findings support the feasibility and promise of scalable, family-centered models that integrate remote, video-based training with individualized in-home coaching. Such hybrid interventions may help bridge service gaps and enhance timely access to positive behavior support for families of young children with ASD.

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3. Altunkaya A, Kose S, Inal Kaleli I, Sari S, Senturk Pilan B, Bildik T. Understanding the interplay of autistic traits, depression and suicidal ideation in adolescents with major depressive disorder. Sci Rep. 2025; 15(1): 40215.

Adolescents with autistic traits (ATs) experience higher rates of depression and suicidal behavior. This study aims to investigate the relationship between ATs, depressive symptoms, and suicidal ideation (SI) in adolescents with major depressive disorder (MDD). Seventy adolescents, aged 11-18 and diagnosed with MDD, were included. Participants were evaluated with the ColumbiaSuicide Severity Rating Scale (CSSR-S), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), and ATs using the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Three groups were compared: those without suicidal thoughts (ST-), suicidal thoughts (ST+), and suicide attempts (SA). While the SA group scored significantly higher on the C-SSRS, BDI, and AQ compared to the ST- group; ST + and SA groups didn’t differ. The mediating role of depression was investigated via a Bayesian mediator analysis for CSSR-S subheaders of current and lifetime suicidal ideation and ideation intensity. The effect of BDI scores on current suicidal ideation was β = 0.08 (CI[0.04-0.13]), which was consistent with lifetime suicidal ideation with the same effect size β = 0.08 (CI[0.03-0.13]). For current suicidal ideation and its intensity, autistic traits had an indirect effect through BDI scores, with an indirect mean of 0.050 (CI[0.02-0.10]). For lifetime suicidal ideation, autistic traits exhibited both a direct (β = 0.09, (CI[0.01-0.16]) and an indirect effect through depression scores, with a mean of 0.052 (CI [0.015-0.102]). The complex interplay between ATs, depressive symptoms, and SI in adolescents diagnosed with MDD suggests that interventions targeting autistic traits may be a useful component of comprehensive mental health strategies for adolescents with MDD and elevated suicidal risk.

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4. Baker EK, Spackman E, Chetcuti L, Richdale AL, Hallmayer J, Gradisar M, Hardan AY, Uljarević M. Factor Structure of the Sleep Disturbance Scale for Children in a Cohort of Youth With Autism. Autism Res. 2025.

Despite the substantial evidence base for poor sleep in autism, sleep problems are frequently under-identified and inefficiently managed. This is, in part, due to the fact that available tools do not comprehensively capture the specific sleep phenotypes in autism. The Sleep Disturbance Scale for Children (SDSC) is one of the highest ranked pediatric sleep assessment tools, yet it is scarcely used in autism research. Consequently, the utility of the SDSC for characterizing sleep disturbances in autism remains unknown. This study explored the factor structure of the SDSC in a sample of 513 autistic youth, aged 3-18 years (mean: 10.5 years; SD: 3.7; 18.7% female) drawn from the Healthy Brain Network secondary dataset. Fit of the previously derived SDSC factor structure was appraised using the confirmatory application of the exploratory structural equation modeling. Results indicated a five-factor solution comprising disorders of initiating and maintaining sleep, disorders of arousal, disorders of excessive somnolence (DoES), sleep breathing disorders, and sleep-wake transition disorders (SWTD) provided an excellent fit for the data. The derived factor solution was stable across sex and age. Notably, all sleep subscales were significantly positively associated with internalizing and externalizing behaviors, while age was significantly associated with DoES (r = 0.15) and SWTD (r = -0.18). This study provides the first validation of the SDSC in a large sample of well-characterized autistic youth showing distinct patterns of associations with key clinical correlates. Findings are consistent with independent reviews, suggesting the SDSC may provide a more effective way to screen for sleep disturbances in autistic individuals.

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5. Bamiou DE, Di Bonaventura S, Skuse D. Navigating auditory assessment in autistic individuals: a narrative review. Arch Dis Child. 2025.

Abnormal sensory responses have been a diagnostic criterion for autism since 2013, with auditory hypersensitivities representing one of the most frequently reported symptoms. It is not unusual for children with autism, some of whom are as yet undiagnosed, to present clinically to specialists with a history of auditory symptoms in the context of normal hearing. This narrative review paper provides a theoretical background and model to account for autism-associated characteristics that arise within the auditory nervous system. The review highlights the need to assess these symptoms by a multidisciplinary approach. There should be appropriate history taking, followed by psychoacoustic and neurophysiological assessments. We discuss a range of evidence-based management strategies. Affected individuals often present to a range of different clinical settings before their autism is recognised clinically. Nowadays, there is an increasing prevalence of neurodivergence. We emphasise the importance to audiologists and other clinicians that auditory-related symptoms can be the presenting problem in autistic children.

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6. Belenger M, Dumont C, Kissine M. Exploring Pragmatic Abilities in Sisters of Autistic Individuals: A Methodological Solution to Female Autism Research. Autism Res. 2025.

Autism is more frequently diagnosed in males than females. One possible explanation for this discrepancy is that autistic females may be overlooked because they show different, subtler signs of autism. For example, sex differences have been reported in pragmatic abilities. However, studying these sex differences is challenging, because diagnosed autistic females may not represent all autistic females-many remaining undiagnosed. To address this issue, our study included adolescent females at increased likelihood for autism: sisters of autistic individuals. Adolescence is a key period when autism-related difficulties often become more visible. We compared the pragmatic abilities of 76 female participants aged between 9 and 16 years old across three groups: autistic, nonautistic, and sisters of diagnosed autistic individuals. Participants completed a semistructured, spoken narrative task, which was analyzed for coherence and fluency. Their caregivers completed several questionnaires to assess both pragmatic abilities and global difficulties. At the group level, caregiver reports indicated an in-between position for sisters: they experienced more pragmatic-related difficulties than nonautistic participants but fewer than autistic participants. Narratives revealed no differences between sisters and nonautistic participants, with one exception: they gave fewer causal explanations of characters’ mental states. Individual profiles of sisters revealed a heterogeneous group, varying from no difficulties at all to pragmatic profiles closely resembling those of autistic females.

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7. Berry-Kravis E, Hagerman R, Cohen J, Budimirovic D, Buchanan CB, Silove N, Tich N, Thibodeau A, Dobbins T, Sebree T, O’Quinn S, Albers DS, Bzdek KG, Nomikos G, Budur K. Long-term safety and tolerability of transdermal cannabidiol gel in children and adolescents with Fragile X syndrome (ZYN2-CL-017): an interim analysis of an ongoing open-label extension study. J Neurodev Disord. 2025; 17(1): 69.

BACKGROUND: Dysregulated endocannabinoid signaling is involved in Fragile X syndrome (FXS), suggesting a potential role for the endocannabinoid signaling modulator, cannabidiol, in treatment. ZYN002 is a synthetic cannabidiol that has been uniquely formulated as a gel for transdermal delivery and is currently under investigation for the treatment of behavioral symptoms associated with FXS. DESIGN: ZYN2-CL-017 is an ongoing, long-term, open-label extension (OLE) safety trial of ZYN002 in patients with FXS. We are enrolling patients from past and current ZYN002 clinical trials to evaluate the safety and tolerability of ZYN002 in patients with FXS. METHODS: Primary safety assessments were conducted in patients who enrolled into the OLE from 2 completed ZYN002 trials. Secondary analyses, conducted in a subgroup enrolled from a completed placebo-controlled trial of ZYN002, included the FXS-specific Aberrant Behavior Checklist-Community Social Avoidance and Irritability subscales (ABC-C(FXS) SA and ABC-C(FXS) Irr, examined change from baseline of the randomized study) and the Caregiver Global Impression of Change (CaGI-C, examined change from baseline of the OLE), in which caregivers were asked to rate the change in their child’s overall behavior. RESULTS: At the time of this interim analysis data cut (January 31, 2024), 240 patients had been enrolled from 2 completed ZYN002 trials. Mean age at entry to the OLE was 9.7 years (range 3-17 years), and the majority were male (76.3%) and White (80.4%). Mean exposure to ZYN002 during the initial trials and OLE was 28 months. Treatment-related adverse events (AEs) were reported in 12.9% of patients; the most common (6.7% of patients) was short-term application site pain. The highest degree of skin irritation reported by investigators was moderate erythema in 7 patients (2.9%). In the secondary analysis cohort (n=196 evaluable patients), patients demonstrated clinically meaningful changes in ABC-C(FXS) SA, ABC-C(FXS) Irr, and CaGI-C scores. CONCLUSIONS: Interim analysis results of the ongoing OLE in children, adolescents, and young adults with FXS demonstrated that ZYN002 has a favorable long-term safety profile and is generally well tolerated. Clinically meaningful changes in behaviors from baseline continued to be observed during the OLE. These findings support further study of ZYN002 in patients with FXS. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ZYN2-CL-017 is registered on Clinicaltrials.gov (NCT03802799) on December 26, 2018.

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8. Bhopti A, Barwell A, McAdam C, Reichelt S. Building parent/caregiver confidence and re-engaging in parent occupations: WeCare programme for parents/caregivers post developmental disability diagnosis. BMJ Paediatr Open. 2025; 9(1).

BACKGROUND: Parents of children newly diagnosed with a developmental disability may experience stress, with no time for their personal care and well-being. WeCare is an online group programme, co-designed to support parents/caregivers around the time of diagnosis. It focuses on increasing parent/caregiver knowledge and confidence, highlighting family quality of life and steering parents to re-engage in meaningful parent occupations. This study aimed to evaluate WeCare programme outcomes around improved understanding of diagnosis, of parent occupations (time-use), well-being and participant rating of professional and peer-facilitated support. METHODS: A multiple single-case AB design with pre-post measurement at limited time points was used. Parents of children with a recent developmental disability diagnosis participated in WeCare. Perceived well-being data were collected using validated measures, a demographic questionnaire and a rating scale at the start of the programme. Data were analysed using SPSS for descriptive analyses, post survey questionnaire results and paired sample t-tests. RESULTS: Among participants (n=47, missing data), 30 of 41 reported mild to extremely severe stress, 25 of 42 reported mild to extremely severe depression, and 18 of 36 reported moderate to extremely severe anxiety. Poor sleep quality was reported by 21 of 45 participants. Caregiving dominated time use, with limited engagement in leisure occupations.Post-programme feedback highlighted increased understanding of the diagnosis, valued peer support and helpful resources. CONCLUSION: This study provides preliminary evidence, highlighting the critical role of capacity-building and structured programmes, like WeCare, in empowering parents and caregivers around the time of diagnosis. The programme was highly rated by participants, with peer facilitators seen as particularly valuable. Parents reported increased understanding of their child’s diagnosis, greater awareness of resources and strong engagement with the parent occupation categories, showing promise in enhancing caregiver outcomes around the time of diagnosis that may be feasible for wider implementation.

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9. Braddock A. Genetic Testing in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Searching for a Ticket or Roadmap. Am J Bioeth. 2025; 25(12): 91-2.

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10. Chen H, Zhang X, Chen Z, Ren Y, Liu R. Auxiliary diagnostic method for children with autism spectrum disorder based on virtual reality and eye-tracking technology. Sci Rep. 2025; 15(1): 40552.

In the behavioral analysis of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), virtual reality (VR)-based eye-tracking technology offers a precise method for assessing social and cognitive characteristics. It overcomes the limitations of traditional diagnostic methods, such as clinician subjectivity and experience bias. VR also addresses ASD-related challenges like attention instability and emotional variability during social interactions. This paper combines eye-tracking with VR environments to analyze gaze patterns in children with ASD. It proposes a new diagnostic framework to improve objectivity and accuracy.The gaze estimation model integrates head and eye movement data to predict gaze direction. It enhances precision using binocular fusion and employs multi-scale convolutional kernels to extract hierarchical eye movement features. The model simplifies network connections to retain essential information. A lightweight Transformer architecture models long-range temporal dependencies in eye movements. A Bayesian decision model is used to classify fixations, saccades, and smooth pursuit.To test the model, an emotion recognition task was designed in a WebVR environment. Gaze data from children with ASD were collected, key features were extracted, and abnormal patterns were identified for diagnostic support. The experimental results showed an 85.88% accuracy rate. This confirms the effectiveness of combining VR and eye-tracking technology in ASD diagnosis, advancing intelligent medical tools, and reducing reliance on subjective clinical judgment.

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11. Crisci G, Lievore R, Mammarella IC. Facial Emotion Recognition in Neurodevelopmental Disorders: A Comparative Study in Children and Adolescents With and Without Autism, ADHD and Specific Learning Disorders. J Autism Dev Disord. 2025.

PURPOSE: Facial emotion recognition (FER) enables individuals to interpret emotions, predict intentions, and respond appropriately in social interactions. Difficulties with FER are often associated with neurodevelopmental conditions such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), while less is known about its impact on individuals with Specific Learning Disorders (SLD). Few studies have compared FER across these groups. METHODS: To address this gap, we evaluated FER in 540 children and adolescents aged 8 to 16 years old autistic (N = 80), ADHD (N = 80), and SLD (N = 80), compared to a control group (CG; N = 300), matched for age, sex and intelligence quotient. We used a FER task that varied in task type – matching (comparing whether two facial expressions convey the same or different emotions) vs. labeling (identifying the specific emotion depicted by a facial expression), emotions’ intensity (high vs. low), and type of emotion (anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise). RESULTS: Mixed-effects models revealed significant difficulties in the ASD and ADHD groups, particularly in the matching task. In contrast, the labeling task revealed broader challenges across all clinical groups compared to CG, with distinct emotion-specific patterns: children with ADHD had difficulty recognizing nearly all emotional expressions; the ASD group exhibited strengths in labeling anger but had difficulty with surprise and disgust; and the SLD group showed low scores with disgust. In both types of tasks, high-intensity emotions were more easily recognized than low-intensity ones across all groups. CONCLUSION: These findings underscore the importance of considering task demands, intensity levels, emotion types, and individual developmental profiles when assessing emotional functioning in clinical populations.

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12. Diamandis N, van den Anker JN, Denisova K. Effect of Alzheimer’s disease medications on neurocognitive outcomes in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder and low IQ: a scoping review. Transl Psychiatry. 2025; 15(1): 475.

BACKGROUND: Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and comorbid intellectual disability (ID) are particularly vulnerable to poor developmental trajectories. These individuals are at increased risk of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) relative to those without comorbid ID and the general population. Considering that there could be an important mechanistic link underlying ASD and AD, individuals with these conditions may stand to benefit from similar psychopharmacological treatments. METHODS: This scoping review aimed to evaluate and synthesize the evidence on the effect of AD medications on neurocognitive outcomes in children and adolescents with ASD and low intelligence quotient (IQ). We performed the search according to PRISMA guidelines from inception to May 21(st), 2025 in four databases: PubMed, PsycInfo, Scopus, and Web of Science. We included studies of children and adolescents (2 – 21 years) with ASD and low IQ (<85) treated with at least one Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved AD medication (donepezil, galantamine, rivastigmine, benzgalantamine, memantine, aducanumab, lecanemab or donanemab) and investigating neurocognitive outcomes. RESULTS: Twelve studies met the eligibility criteria. Six studies reported on neurocognitive outcomes from N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist treatment and six studies from cholinesterase inhibitor treatment. Among studies reporting on cholinesterase inhibitors, significant improvement was detected in language (60% of five reporting studies), executive function (100% of two reporting studies), complex attention (100% of one reporting study), and general cognitive ability (50% of two reporting studies). Among the NMDA receptor antagonist studies, evidence of improvement was detected in language (60% of five reporting studies), executive function (75% of four reporting studies), learning and memory (100% of two reporting studies), perceptual-motor functioning (66.6% of three reporting studies), complex attention (100% of one reporting study), and general cognitive ability (50% of two reporting studies). Across studies, treatment with either a cholinesterase inhibitor or an NMDA receptor antagonist was associated with improvements in language, executive function, complex attention, and general cognitive ability. A pattern of significance was detected with age, in that younger children may benefit more from these medications than adolescents. CONCLUSION: This scoping review identified promising evidence of neurocognitive improvement in children and adolescents with ASD and low IQ following treatment with either a cholinesterase inhibitor or an NMDA receptor antagonist. Considering the lack of FDA-approved treatments for the cognitive deficits associated with ASD and an absence of medications approved to treat core features of ASD, our findings highlight an opportunity for innovative directions in autism research and treatment.

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13. Dueñas AD, Gómez LR, Martin Loya MR, Bhana-Lopez N, Price RA, Lee JD. « More Than Just Taking Off Your Shoes »: A Mixed Methods Study of Cultural Adaptation Practices in the Autism Service System. J Autism Dev Disord. 2025.

PURPOSE: This mixed-methods study examined cultural adaptation practices within Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) services for autistic children from historically marginalized communities. METHODS: Using an explanatory sequential design (QUANT → QUAL), we surveyed 519 ABA practitioners and conducted follow-up interviews with 12 participants to assess knowledge, implementation frequency, and barriers to cultural adaptation practices. RESULTS: Quantitative findings revealed moderate levels of self-reported knowledge and implementation across six domains of the Cultural Adaptation Checklist: content, goals, language, methods, people/context, and process. Qualitative analysis revealed three major themes affecting implementation: (1) Individual Attitudes, Beliefs, and Cultural Responsivity; (2) Organizational and Systemic Support and Barriers; and (3) Resource Limitations and Professional Development. Key barriers included inadequate organizational support, insufficient professional development, challenges with translation services, and restrictive insurance policies. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates the need for comprehensive policy reforms, enhanced training initiatives, and organizational commitment to cultural sustainment to address disparities in service provision and improve outcomes for marginalized autistic children and families.

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14. Gonzalez-Herrero B, Coebergh J, Pagonabarraga J, Morgante F, Deeley Q, Edwards MJ. Structured clinical diagnostic assessment reveals autism spectrum disorder in adults with functional neurological disorder. Sci Rep. 2025; 15(1): 40423.

Emerging evidence suggests a link between Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), underscoring the importance of considering neurodevelopmental traits in neurological care. This study examined the prevalence of clinically probable ASD (CP-ASD) in a specialist FND clinic and explored its associations with symptom presentation, mental health, alexithymia and interoceptive awareness. Sixteen consecutively recruited adults with FND underwent comprehensive ASD assessment, including self-report questionnaires (RAADS-R, AdAS Spectrum), observational interview (ADOS-IV), and evaluation against DSM-5 criteria. Additional validated psychometric measures assessed anxiety (GAD-7), depression (PHQ-9), dissociation (Cambridge Depersonalization Scale, CDS), alexithymia (TAS-20), camouflaging (CAT-Q), and interoceptive sensibility (MAIA-2). Half of the participants (n = 8) met criteria for CP-ASD. Compared with the non-CP-ASD group, the CP-ASD group had a younger age at symptom onset and a longer interval from onset to FND diagnosis. After correction for multiple comparisons, significant group differences remained for anxiety (GAD-7), dissociation (CDS), and camouflaging behaviours (CAT-Q total, Compensation, and Assimilation subscales). Several further differences reached uncorrected significance with large effect sizes, including alexithymia (TAS-20) and the MAIA-2 Not Worrying and Emotional Awareness subscales, but did not survive correction and should be considered exploratory. Among functional symptom types, only sensory symptoms differed, being more prevalent in the CP-ASD group (62.5% vs 12.5%, p =.021), while treatment response did not differ between groups. . These findings suggest that ASD may frequently co-exist with FND but remain under-recognised. Incorporating routine screening and neurodevelopmentally informed care could improve diagnostic accuracy and support more personalised interventions. Larger, adequately powered studies are needed to confirm these preliminary results and to clarify further the role of neurodevelopmental factors in the onset, persistence, and treatment response of FND.

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15. He J, Liao S, Luo B, Huang Y. Associations between maternal lipid metabolism and immune characteristics in children with autism spectrum disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2025; 355: 116833.

BACKGROUND: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a severe neurodevelopmental disorder potentially associated with maternal obesity, which may increase ASD risk by disrupting fetal immune-inflammatory and nervous system development through chronic low-grade inflammation. However, their transgenerational associations remain largely unexplored, leaving a significant research gap. OBJECTIVE: This study investigates the potential transgenerational associations between maternal lipid metabolism and the immune-inflammatory profiles of children with ASD, as compared to typically developing (TD) children. METHODS: This retrospective correlational study utilized data extracted from the Hospital Information System (HIS). A total of 118 mother-child pairs with children diagnosed with ASD and 113 TD pairs were included. The associations between maternal metabolic and children’s immune-inflammatory indices were analyzed using canonical correlation analysis (CCA). RESULTS: A significant positive correlation was observed between maternal lipid metabolism and children’s immune-inflammatory variables in ASD pairs, with the first pair of canonical variables r = 0.414 (p < 0.05). Maternal triglyceride levels and children's white blood cell counts were the key contributors to the interaction, with canonical loadings and cross-loadings of -0.979 and -0.405 for triglycerides, and -0.983 and -0.407 for white blood cell count, respectively. In contrast, no significant canonical correlations were detected in the TD group (largest r = 0.337, p = 0.122). CONCLUSION: This finding supports the transgenerational aspects of the development of ASD by preliminarily revealing associations between maternal lipid metabolism and children's immune-inflammatory indicators. Importantly, these associations were observed in ASD pairs but not in TD pairs, suggesting a potential specificity to ASD.

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16. Holmberg S, Gunnarsson AB. Animal-assisted and nature-based intervention on a farm for young adults with autism and social withdrawal – A one-year follow-up with a socioeconomic approach. Scand J Occup Ther. 2025; 32(1): 2588046.

BACKGROUND: Interventions in the form of animal-assisted and nature-based activities are promising for young adults with autism, but there is a knowledge gap concerning the long-term values of these. AIM: The aim was to describe the activity levels in daily life and socioeconomic aspects for young adults with autism one year after a 12-week intervention with animal-assisted and nature-based activities. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A qualitative follow-up study with individual interviews was performed. Ten participants were interviewed with a focus on their life situation, activity levels, and need for further professional support after the intervention. Summative content analysis was used. The direct costs of the intervention were discussed in relation to the societal costs of social exclusion of young adults. FINDINGS: Seven of ten participants improved; two were in organized occupation, five reported partial improvement or increased daily life activities and three participants experienced no change. The direct cost for the intervention was modest. Disorganized professional support and waiting times in the welfare sector were perceived as stressful and hindering sustainable change. CONCLUSIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE: The animal-assisted and nature-based intervention facilitated increased daily activities for the participating young adults. The findings suggest that it is reasonable to investigate the possible socioeconomic implications of this type of intervention.

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17. Li K, Zheng C, Yang Y, Du B, Zhao Y, Chen Y, Liu J, Cai J, Cheng W, Lv K, Chen L, Jia F, Su S, Tang W. The intentional and spontaneous social motor synchrony of pre-school autistic children: Evidence from fNIRS hyperscanning and machine learning. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2025.

BACKGROUND: Social motor synchrony is critical for successful social interaction. It remains unclear whether autistic children exhibit distinct differences in intentional versus spontaneous social motor synchrony, as well as what underlying interpersonal neural synchrony (INS) mechanisms drive these potential differences. METHOD: Fifty-four children (28 autistic) completed intentional (a delayed and synchronous imitation tasks in EX1) and spontaneous (a rhythmic hand-clapping task in EX2) tasks with an adult. Brain signals were collected by a portable multichannel fNIRS device and classified by GaussianNB machine learning approach. RESULTS: Compared with non-autistic children, autistic children showed: (1) significantly lower behavioral synchrony across both two experiments; (2) reduced activation in the right temporoparietal junction (r-TPJ, CH18) during Ex1, with no significant group differences in activation observed across all 20 fNIRS channels during Ex2; (3) significantly lower INS values in task-specific brain regions, that left inferior parietal lobule (l-IPL, CH3) in the delayed imitation condition in EX1; left inferior frontal gyrus (l-IFG, CH2), l-IPL (CH9), and r-TPJ (CH18) in the synchronous imitation condition in Ex1, and in the IPL (CH8, CH10-14) and r-TPJ (CH18) in Ex2. The GaussianNB model successfully discriminated between autistic and non-autistic children using task-related INS values, with classification accuracy varying by task condition, reaching 55.56% in the delayed imitation condition of EX1, 57.41% in the time-lag analysis condition of EX1, 64.81% in the synchronous imitation condition of EX1, and 74.07% in Ex2. Notably, the SHAP toolkit identified key channels driving group distinction-and these channels fully overlapped with the statistically significant INS channels identified in the analyses. CONCLUSIONS: Autistic children exhibit differences in both intentional and spontaneous social motor synchrony, and these differences are linked to reduced INS in key social cognitive brain regions (IFG, IPL, TPJ). This research advances understanding of social functioning variations in autistic individuals and provides a foundational foundation for developing INS-based diagnostic tools.

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18. Nagarajan DV, Brinster M, Drayton A, Shahidullah JD. Internet Guidance on Feeding for Parents of Children With Autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 2025.

PURPOSE: Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often struggle with consuming nutritionally adequate diets. When supporting a child with feeding difficulties, many caregivers utilize the internet for medical advice. Our objective is to evaluate internet accessible information on pediatric feeding for accuracy and completeness as pertaining to autistic children with feeding difficulties, who frequently have different needs than neurotypical children with similar difficulties. METHODS: Twelve search terms were used across four internet search engines to explore a total of 110 web pages. Each web page was coded for (1) promotion of evidence-based recommendations on pediatric feeding (2) promotion of non-evidence-based recommendations about pediatric feeding, and (3) promotion of products for sale. RESULTS: Eight out of nine evidence-based recommendations on food selectivity were unanimously endorsed by the analyzed web pages. Two out of five non-evidence-based recommendations on food selectivity (that a child will stop eating when they are full, and that food selectivity is « normal » for children) were endorsed by more than half of web pages. Twenty-two out of 110 web pages advertised a product that required payment. CONCLUSION: While many internet web pages were written by or supported by healthcare organizations, professionals, and clinicians, limited information was found which applied specifically to neurodivergent children. Web pages did not frequently note that neurodiverse children may require a more specific approach to feeding and nutrition.

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19. Pardalou G, Panagouli E, Tzila E, Tsitsika A. Delayed Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder in Adolescent Boys. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2026; 1489: 305-21.

BACKGROUND: The diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is an exceptionally crucial and sensitive topic in the field of mental health. Despite the importance of early diagnosis, there is often a delay in recognizing autism, especially in the particularly sensitive age group of adolescent boys. The main consequences of this delay are a lack of support, incorrect pharmacological treatment, psychological bullying, family strain, decline in social interaction, and reinforcement of ASD traits. This systematic literature review aims to study the phenomenon of delayed diagnosis of autism in boys during adolescence or young adulthood. METHODS: Eligible studies were extracted from PubMed, Google Scholar, and Scopus databases up to August 30, 2023. The participants included only boys, adolescents aged 10-18 years. RESULTS: A total of 14 eligible studies and 5.185 participants were included. The primary reasons for delayed ASD diagnosis concerned prior misdiagnosis, comorbidities, social stigma, socio-economic factors, lack of specialized education and parental awareness, diagnostic reclassification, and absence of ASD characteristics. CONCLUSIONS: Substantial delays are recorded between the initial concern and the final assessment of boys, resulting in diagnoses occurring during adolescence or adulthood.

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20. Pelle M, Fiori Nastro F, Maimone C, Malara S, Di Lazzaro V, Di Lorenzo G, Ribolsi M. Autism in Adulthood: Psychiatric Comorbidity in High-Functioning Autistic Adults in an Outpatient Clinical Population. NeuroSci. 2025; 6(4).

BACKGROUND: Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a complex and heterogeneous neurodevelopmental condition. Diagnosing ASD in adults, especially in milder forms, remains challenging due to camouflaging strategies, adaptive behaviors, and frequent psychiatric comorbidities. Despite increased awareness, there is a critical need to improve recognition and tailored interventions for adults with ASD. This study aims to examine the prevalence of psychiatric comorbidities among individuals diagnosed with ASD. METHODS: This retrospective cross-sectional study examined 64 adults diagnosed with ASD (n = 29 females, 45.3%; age: range, 18-57 years; mean ± SD, 30.9 ± 8.92), who accessed two university hospital outpatient units in Rome between September 2023 and January 2025. All participants were assessed using the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, Second Edition-Module 4 (ADOS-2). Psychiatric comorbidities were evaluated using clinical assessments and the Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.) Plus. RESULTS: All patients received an ASD diagnosis without intellectual disability. Forty-four (68.8%) presented with at least one psychiatric comorbidity, most commonly depressive (25.0%) and anxiety disorders (9.4%). Over half of the participants (57.4%) reported at least mild depressive symptoms, and 42.6% exhibited moderate to severe depressive levels. CONCLUSIONS: High rates of psychiatric comorbidities, particularly mood and anxiety disorders, were observed, underscoring the importance of comprehensive, multidisciplinary assessment and individualized interventions. Further research using larger samples and rigorous methodologies is warranted to better characterize the ASD phenotype in adults and guide targeted therapeutic strategies.

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21. Salahshoor S, Renbarger KM. AI-enhanced, digital psychosocial interventions for pediatric developmental disabilities: A scoping review. J Pediatr Nurs. 2025; 86: 199-206.

BACKGROUND: A variety of challenges exist to the well-being of children and adolescents with developmental disabilities (DDs). Barriers exist to traditional, in-person psychosocial services for many children and adolescents with DDs. Pediatric nurses often have limited time to provide psychosocial support to this population in the clinical setting. Artificial Intelligence (AI)-enhanced, digital psychosocial interventions can help fill this gap by providing tools that support emotional and mental health outside of brief clinical encounters. OBJECTIVE: This paper mapped the existing literature on the experiences of children and adolescents with DDs with AI-enhanced, digital psychosocial interventions, highlighting intervention types, psychosocial outcomes, challenges, and implications for pediatric nursing. METHODS: Using Arksey and O’Malley’s scoping review framework, we searched APA PsycINFO, CINAHL, Embase, and PubMed (January 2015-July 2025) for peer-reviewed, English-language studies evaluating AI-enhanced digital psychosocial interventions for children/adolescents with DDs. Eligible interventions included chatbots, neurofeedback, serious games, and apps with adaptive algorithms. RESULTS: Seven studies met inclusion criteria, underscoring an early evidence base at the intersection of pediatric DDs, psychosocial care, and AI. Interventions improved quality of life, emotion regulation, language, and social communication, but challenges included participant dropouts, vocabulary mismatches, and technical issues (e.g., network failures). CONCLUSION: Artificial intelligence-enhanced, digital psychosocial interventions show promise, but evidence is limited, fragmented, and focused mainly on autism spectrum disorder. Multicenter and cost-effectiveness studies are needed. Pediatric nurses can guide families in selecting and integrating these tools.

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22. Soto-Icaza P, Oyarzun M, Yaikin T, Arcos-Polanco M, Candia C, Rodríguez-Sickert C, Billeke P. Autism shapes social integration and reciprocity in elementary classrooms. Sci Rep. 2025; 15(1): 40473.

During childhood, schools are crucial environments for social interactions, making them ideal for evaluating the inclusion of students with special educational needs (SEN). In particular, autistic children often face challenges in peer relationships, yet the impact of autism on social dynamics in schools is not well understood. To address this issue, we examined social dynamics within elementary schools. We hypothesized that, compared to their non-autistic peers, autistic children occupy more peripheral positions in social networks and engage less in reciprocal relationships. To test these hypotheses, we introduced a novel ecological approach using experimental game theory to quantify social integration and reciprocity among autistic children. Social networks were constructed for each classroom based on the children’s peer selections during a distributive game where they had to send tokens to their peers. Six elementary schools took part in this study. From these schools, 26 classrooms from first to fourth grade were included, comprising a total of 625 students aged 6 to 11. Among them, 464 were students without SEN, 143 were students with SEN excluding autism, and 18 were autistic students. Our analysis showed that autistic children and children with SEN were significantly less central and less involved in reciprocal peer relationships compared to children without SEN. Due to the small sample of autistic students, further research with greater statistical power is needed to clarify the specificity of the results. These findings highlight the need for support in promoting social inclusion while also emphasizing the importance of exploring the intersection of neurodevelopmental conditions and social dynamics.

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23. Tan R, Ma LY, Liu C, Lyu Q, Ding BL, Xiao WX. [Neuropsychological development status and risk factors in small for gestational age infants at corrected ages 12-24 months]. Zhongguo Dang Dai Er Ke Za Zhi. 2025; 27(11): 1339-45.

OBJECTIVES: To explore the status and risk factors of neuropsychological development in small for gestational age (SGA) infants at corrected 12-24 months of age. METHODS: Clinical data were retrospectively collected for 754 SGA infants at corrected ages 12-24 months in Shenzhen Bao’an Women and Children’s Hospital between April 2018 and December 2023. Developmental quotient (DQ) levels were analyzed. According to the presence of global developmental delay (GDD), participants were divided into a GDD group (71 cases) and a control group (683 cases), and the incidence and influencing factors of GDD were investigated. RESULTS: In the high-risk preterm SGA group, the total DQ and DQ in all domains were lower than in the full-term SGA group (P<0.017). The overall incidence of GDD was 9.4% (71/754) and increased with decreasing gestational age (P<0.017). Compared with the control group, the GDD group had higher proportions of males; low-risk and high-risk preterm birth; mothers with less than a bachelor's degree; multiple birth; neonatal hypoglycemia; neonatal pneumonia; neonatal respiratory distress syndrome; bronchopulmonary dysplasia; and, at corrected 12-24 months, low body weight, growth retardation, and microcephaly. The length of neonatal hospital stay was longer in the GDD group than in the control group (P<0.05). The weight-for-age Z score, length-for-age Z score, and head circumference-for-age Z score at birth and at corrected 12-24 months were lower in the GDD group than in the control group (P<0.05). Multivariable logistic regression showed that male sex and maternal education below a bachelor's degree were independent risk factors for GDD in SGA infants (P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Neuropsychological development in preterm SGA infants is comparatively delayed; male SGA infants born to mothers with less than a bachelor's degree should receive priority attention.

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24. Tsagkli E, Prasini I, Missouridou E, Apostolara P, Govina O, Tsiou C, Mantzorou M, Paraskeva M, Lentzari L, Adamakidou T, Dokoutsidou H, Timmins F, Parissopoulos S. The Lived Experience of Parents Raising a Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder: « Losing Your Way, Being on a Rollercoaster with Ups and Downs ». Adv Exp Med Biol. 2026; 1489: 385-401.

INTRODUCTION: Raising a child with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) poses distinct challenges for the parents. The responsibilities that come with securing ongoing support are often described as daunting by them. Parents need support, guidance, and access to specialists to come to terms with the first diagnosis of ASD and to safely guide their child through the developmental stages into adulthood. AIM: To investigate the experiences of parents who are raising children diagnosed with ASD in Greece. METHODS: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight parents of children with ASD. Interviews were analyzed according to Braun and Clarke’s thematic methodology. Qualitative analysis software program ATLAS.TI version 8 was used for data organization and analysis. FINDINGS: Data analysis resulted in one core theme, as the participants experienced raising their child with ASD as « losing your way, being on a rollercoaster with ups and downs ». The core theme comprised of five sub-themes: (a) Experiencing loneliness, isolation, and social stigma, (b) Positive development in the long run and finding solutions to problems, (c) Advocating for their child, being the link, (d) Uncertainty, stress, fear for what the future holds, and (e) Losing themselves, identity crisis. CONCLUSIONS: The parents grappled with feelings of loneliness, isolation, and stigma. Engaging in social interactions with friends and extended family proved particularly challenging. Additionally, they made substantial life adjustments, including changing or even stopping their careers. Nevertheless, despite their many challenges, the children progressed over time. This prompted the parents to devise solutions, be proactive and keep going, for the best interest of their child.

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25. Tsompanidis A, Chang KM, Khan YT, Radecki MA, Dorschmidt L, Hampton S, Aydin E, Allison C, Tait R, Bethlehem RAI, Kyriakopoulou V, Austin T, Suckling J, Holt R, Baron-Cohen S. Perinatal brain growth and autistic traits in toddlers. Transl Psychiatry. 2025; 15(1): 474.

Autism is a heterogeneous set of neurodevelopmental conditions with a significant heritable component and perinatal origins. The earliest observable behavioural traits, with which a diagnosis can be made, emerge at 18 months of age. Previous studies have reported increased head circumference and brain growth in autistic children, but less is known about whether this extends to the wider spectrum of traits or to early brain development in the first 6 months of life. Data from two independent cohorts, the developing Human Connectome Project (dHCP) and Cambridge Human Imaging and Longitudinal Development (CHILD), were assessed in late fetal and early infancy for brain structure with MRI. Global and regional brain volumes in the dHCP, were studied prenatally (n = 106, mean age = 29.27 [SD = 3.8] gestational weeks) and postnatally (n = 454, mean age = 41.28 [SD = 1.93] weeks post-conception) in association with later autistic traits after 18 months of age, as captured on the parent-report Quantitative Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (‘Q-CHAT’). The results informed a region-of-interest analysis in the smaller independent CHILD cohort, where participants were scanned during pregnancy (mean = 31.98 weeks gestation, SD = 1.52) and postnatally (mean scan age = 50.45, SD = 2.8 weeks post-conception)(n = 27). After controlling for cohort covariates, such as maternal age, birth weight, sex and age post-conception at the time of scan, postnatal total brain volume, cortical grey matter volume, and white matter volume were all negatively associated with autistic traits in toddlerhood. This was found for postnatal volumes in both the dHCP and the CHILD cohort but was not apparent when assessing prenatal brain volume or perinatal growth rates of total brain volume in the same individuals. Regional analyses in the dHCP cohort, after controlling for total brain volume, showed patterns of note in the temporal lobe, which warrant further research. In conclusion, reduced total brain volume in the first two months of life is associated with a higher number of autistic traits, as reported by parents at 18 months of life. Further research is required to understand if this extends to later ages, to children later diagnosed with autism and how it affects the development and connectivity of specific regions, particularly in the temporal lobes.

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26. Wang L, Zheng L, Bai Y, Dill SE, Rozelle S. Parenting quality and early childhood development: evidence from different rural subpopulations in China. BMC Psychol. 2025; 13(1): 1273.

BACKGROUND: The quality of parenting can affect the developmental outcomes of young children. This study aims to investigate the associations between parenting quality and the early childhood development of children under age 3 across four major rural subpopulations in China. METHODS: Using a stratified cluster sampling method, 760 children aged 6-36 months and their primary caregivers in four rural subpopulations from four provinces and a metropolis in China were surveyed. Child development was assessed by the Third Edition of the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development. Parenting quality was measured using the Family Care Indicators. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, multivariable regression analysis, and linear regression analysis. RESULTS: Across the four subpopulations, prevalences of delays of the sample children in four domains – cognition, language, social-emotional, and motor development are 52%, 45%, 52%, and 19%, respectively. The proportion of children with any type of delay is 82%, while over half (53%) have delays in at least two areas, and 27% have delays in three or more areas. Child’s mother as the primary caregiver, maternal education levels, and family asset values are all positively associated with the quality of parenting. Notably, low levels of parenting quality in rural China are linked to high rates of developmental delays. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that the level of parenting quality is significantly associated with early childhood developmental outcomes. Results highlight the need for raising investments in family care to improve early childhood development in different rural subpopulations in China.

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27. Wang X, Zhu RX, Du XG, Song HJ. Applying Target Trial Emulation to Evaluate Acupuncture Combined with Rehabilitation for Autism Spectrum Disorder in Children: A Retrospective Single-Center Real-World Protocol. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2025; 21: 2513-23.

BACKGROUND: Target trial emulation (TTE) has recently emerged as an innovative methodological framework for deriving causal inference from real-world data. Its use in complementary and integrative medicine, however, remains limited. This protocol applies TTE to evaluate the effectiveness of acupuncture combined with rehabilitation in children with ASD, aiming to generate rigorous real-world evidence and bridge the current evidence gap. METHODS: This retrospective TTE study will utilize anonymized data from the ASD registry of Xi’an TCM Hospital of Encephalopathy affiliated to Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine. Children aged 2-12 years diagnosed with ASD according to DSM-5 criteria will be included. The intervention group will receive rehabilitation therapy plus acupuncture, while the control group will receive standard rehabilitation therapy alone. A total of approximately 250-300 participants will be included, ensuring at least 180 matched cases after propensity score matching. Statistical analyses will include paired t-tests, multivariable regression, and correlation analyses to estimate treatment effects and control for confounding. The TTE defines a clear time-zero (treatment initiation), prespecified censoring and crossover rules, and a causal estimand focusing on the average treatment effect among the treated (ATT). Balance diagnostics and sensitivity analyses will be performed to assess robustness. ANTICIPATED RESULTS: This study is designed to evaluate whether acupuncture combined with rehabilitation leads to greater improvements in ATEC and ABC scores compared with rehabilitation alone. Exploratory neuroimaging analyses will be conducted to investigate potential mechanisms underlying treatment effects. CONCLUSION: This protocol aims to evaluate the effectiveness of acupuncture combined with rehabilitation for children with ASD using a target trial emulation framework applied to real-world data. The study is designed to estimate the causal effect (ATT) while addressing confounding and missing-data issues, and its findings-whether positive or null-will inform future RCT design and the evidence-based integration of acupuncture in neurodevelopmental care. CLINICAL TRIAL NUMBER: Not applicable.

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28. Wieczorko N, Bellantonio E, Napoli SB, Lejarraga C, Pedernera Bradichansky P, Urinovsky MG, Escalante AS, Rodríguez LS, Russo FM, Argento JI, Perea D’Olivo WF, Cafiero PJ. Girls and female adolescents diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder: A descriptive study. Arch Argent Pediatr. 2025: e202510781.

Introduction. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) presents challenges in social communication and behavior. It is more common in males (3:1). Girls receive alternative or delayed diagnoses due to better communication skills, atypical but less unusual interests, greater presence of internalizing behaviors, and camouflage strategies. This can lead to underdiagnosis and limit access to adequate support. Objective. To describe the population of girls and female adolescents (GFA) with ASD being monitored at a tertiary hospital, comparing them according to age and clinical characteristics. Population and methods. Descriptive, cross-sectional study with retrospective analysis of medical records of GFAs evaluated between 2002 and 2024. Data on development, physical examination, and sociodemographic variables were collected. The sample was divided into preschoolers and schoolchildren, and by the presence or absence of language at the time of diagnosis. Results. A sample of 415 GFAs was obtained. Sixteen percent (n = 69) received a late diagnosis. In older girls, two profiles were identified: one compatible with the female phenotype of ASD (language present, lower intellectual disability, consultation for social difficulties) and another with characteristics of profound autism (no language, higher intellectual disability, epilepsy, regression, and greater severity). In preschoolers, cognitive impairment or failure to adapt to formal assessments predominated. A family history of ASD or an broader autism phenotype were present in 19.5% (n = 81) of cases. Conclusion. We observed a high clinical variability, which requires greater diagnostic sensitivity and specific tools to facilitate adequate support.

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29. Xiong H, Xiang X, Liu X, Yang T, Chen J, Chen J, Li T. Predicting autism spectrum disorder severity in children based on specific language milestones: a random forest model approach. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 2025; 19(1): 127.

BACKGROUND: Language impairments are among the most prevalent co-occurring conditions in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and delayed language milestones often serve as early developmental warning signs. However, it remains unclear whether specific language milestones can reliably predict the severity of ASD symptoms, particularly in regions where there is a long delay between initial screening and formal diagnosis. METHODS: This study included 574 children diagnosed with ASD, stratified into two age groups: under 4 years (n = 288) and 4 years or above (n = 286). A total of 33 language milestone items covering receptive, expressive, and pragmatic aspects were evaluated. The Boruta algorithm was applied to identify significant predictors of symptom severity, and random forest models were constructed separately for each age group. Nested cross-validation and grid search were used for hyperparameter tuning. Model performance was assessed using bootstrapping with 1,000 replications to estimate area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC), accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, and F1 scores. RESULTS: In children under 4 years, 14 features were identified as significant predictors of ASD severity, with « Identifies 1 picture » and « Expresses demands by language » ranked highest. In children aged 4 years and above, 16 features were significant, with « Identifies 2 colors » and « Calls partner by name » being the most influential. The random forest models demonstrated robust predictive performance, with AUC values of 0.81 ± 0.01 (younger group) and 0.85 ± 0.00 (older group). CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that specific early language milestones, particularly those reflecting pragmatic abilities, may serve as valuable predictors of ASD severity. Leveraging these milestones in clinical practice could support earlier severity stratification and facilitate more tailored intervention planning, particularly in primary care settings.

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30. Yang X, Zhan L, Wang Y. Semantic projection as a method to measure individual differences in semantic scale length: insights from autism-related traits. Sci Rep. 2025; 15(1): 40119.

Human perceive and navigate the world using internal scales constructed for various semantic features (e.g., danger, weight), and these scales vary considerably in length and endpoints among individuals. Quantifying these scale lengths is critical for understanding cognitive diversity, yet existing methods face reliability challenges. Here, we extend Grand et al.’s semantic projection approach through a free-response paradigm to measure individual differences in scale length. Applying this framework to autistic traits, we uncover a dissociation: in male participants, those with high Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) scores exhibited significantly shorter scale lengths for abstract features compared to low-AQ males, revealing compressed conceptual representations in neurodivergent cognition. In contrast, no such differences were observed among females or for physical features. Potential implications and accounts are discussed.

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