1. Aiona K, Crume T, Reyes N, Schmiege SJ, Young J, Holst B, Durkin MS, Magallanes M, DiGuiseppi C. Proximity of Maternal Time of Immigration to Child’s Birth Is Associated With Autism Spectrum Disorder With Early Learning Delay Among Immigrant Populations in the United States: Findings From the Study to Explore Early Development. Autism Res. 2025.

Our objective was to examine the relationship between the timing of parental US immigration and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) without early learning delay (ELD), ASD with ELD, and ELD alone among US-born children. We analyzed data from a multi-site case-control study that recruited children aged 2-5 years with ASD or non-ASD developmental disorders and same-age population controls. Parental demographics were collected from caregivers at study enrollment. Mullen Scales of Early Learning ≤ 70 was used to define ELD. Among children with a non-US-born parent (N = 1048), we used multinomial logistic regression to examine time from parental immigration to the child’s birth in relation to ASD alone, ASD with ELD (ASD + ELD), and ELD alone compared to population controls. Having a non-US-born mother (regardless of the father’s birthplace) versus a non-US-born father only was evaluated as a potential effect modifier. Among those with a non-US-born mother, closer proximity of maternal time of immigration to the child’s birth is associated with increased odds for ASD + ELD and ELD alone. There was no significant association between years since US arrival and ASD alone. Among those with a non-US-born father only, we did not observe a significant relationship between time since paternal US arrival and ASD/ELD categories. Our study suggests that time-varying exposures among immigrant mothers may be of importance for the development of ASD + ELD and ELD alone in the offspring. These results may inform research into the etiology of ASD and ELD and ways to support immigrant women of childbearing age.

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2. Anderle F, Barbieri R, Pasqualotto A, Bentenuto A, Venuti P. Linking cognitive flexibility, planning, and autistic traits: The mediating role of cognitive abilities. Res Dev Disabil. 2025; 166: 105136.

Autistic children often face cognitive challenges, particularly in executive functions (EFs). Previous research has explored the relationship between EFs and autistic traits, including social abilities and restricted and repetitive behaviours (RRBs). While some consistencies emerge from ecologically valid ratings, results from performance-based measures and studies combining lab tasks with parent reports remain inconsistent. This study investigated associations between EFs and autistic traits, focusing on the mediating role of cognitive abilities. We assessed 110 autistic participants aged 4-17 years (33 with IQ <85; 77 with IQ ≥85) using a comprehensive neuropsychological battery, including the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV), performance-based EF tasks (WCST, TOL), clinician ratings (ADOS-2), and parent-reported measures (SRS-2). Results showed significant links between cognitive flexibility and clinician-observed RRBs, and between planning skills and parent-reported autistic traits. Notably, cognitive abilities mediated the relationships of cognitive flexibility and planning with clinician-rated social-communication skills. Lower IQ participants performed worse on most EF measures, except for errors in shifting and planning task timing. Clinicians reported lower social scores only in the lower IQ group. These findings reveal inconsistencies in convergence between performance-based EF measures and autistic traits from parent and clinician reports. Importantly, cognitive abilities play a significant role in clinical assessments of EF and socio-communication, highlighting the need for more sensitive and ecologically valid neuropsychological tools. Conversely, cognitive skills did not influence clinician-rated RRBs or parent reports, suggesting these behaviours may be independent of broader cognitive abilities.

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3. Chintalapally S, Rajanala K, Upadhyay A. Autism spectrum disorder and the role of nuclear hormone receptors: insights and therapeutic implications. Front Neurosci. 2025; 19: 1655348.

Autism spectrum disorder is a neurological and developmental condition known to impact a person’s learning, communication, and interpersonal interactions. Recent research has highlighted the role of nuclear hormone receptors (NHRs) in neurodevelopment and synaptic function, suggesting their potential involvement in ASD pathophysiology. NHRs regulate gene expression that are critical for neural differentiation, plasticity, and metabolic processes. Dysregulation of these receptors can lead to altered neural circuit formation and neurotransmitter imbalances, which are commonly observed in ASD. Understanding the interplay between NHRs and ASD could open new avenues for therapeutic interventions, providing hope for more personalized approaches to managing the disorder. One key receptor is retinoic acid-related orphan receptor-alpha (RORA), which was shown to be reduced in individuals with ASD. Among its numerous functions during development, RORA was shown to regulate the transcription of genes involved in neuronal differentiation, synaptic function, and neuroprotection. Studies have identified that RORA expression is reduced in individuals with ASD, particularly in the prefrontal cortex and cerebellum, affecting transcription of multiple ASD-associated genes. In the present review, we discuss the underlying mechanisms leading to ASD pathophysiology, various treatment modalities, the prospects of the RORA gene therapy approach, and future perspectives.

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4. Corrigan G, Naigles LR. Autistic Individuals’ Categorical Induction Abilities Improve by Mid-Adolescence. J Autism Dev Disord. 2025.

PURPOSE: Categorical induction, the ability to transfer a known category’s properties to a new category member, develops early and robustly in typically developing (TD) children but has proven challenging for autistic children and adolescents. We investigated whether autistic and TD adolescents might perform similarly on a categorical induction task when expressive language was controlled for, and whether autistic and TD children’s categorical induction abilities improved longitudinally. METHODS: Twenty-two TD and 20 autistic participants completed a ‘Diversity’ categorical induction task as adolescents. For the longitudinal analysis, we examined a subset (19 TD and 14 autistic participants) who had also completed an ‘Early’ categorical induction task as five-to-seven-year-olds. RESULTS: When expressive language was controlled for, groups did not statistically differ on categorical induction performance in adolescence. Expressive language also predicted performance above and beyond nonverbal IQ in both groups. In the longitudinal analysis, we observed that both groups’ categorical induction performance significantly improved over time, and the magnitude of improvement did not differ by group. CONCLUSIONS: Contrary to previous literature on this subject, our findings suggest that categorical induction is not out of reach for autistic individuals; accounting for differences in expressive language between groups, autistic adolescents’ categorical induction performance mirrored that of their TD peers. Furthermore, our longitudinal analysis clarifies that the same autistic individuals who previously struggled with categorical induction could become more consistent.

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5. Das MR, Rahman M, Zhou C. Structural Insights into Protein Mutations Related to Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Systematic Review. ACS Chem Neurosci. 2025; 16(22): 4341-50.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a multifaceted neurodevelopmental condition characterized by difficulties in social interactions and communication, alongside repetitive behaviors and restricted interests. Its etiology is a complex etiology involving genetic, environmental, and epigenetic factors, with significant contributions from mutations in synaptic proteins, including neuroligins (NLGNs), neurexins (NRXNs), and SHANK family proteins. Structural changes caused by mutations in these proteins can lead to synaptic dysfunction, disrupt scaffolding, and impact neuronal circuitry, which reflects the symptoms of ASD. The purpose of this study is to compile the most recent findings regarding protein structure and how specific mutations in these proteins contribute to ASD. This systematic review conducted a comprehensive analysis of research published from 2014 to 2024, collected from the Web of Science and Scopus databases, and the protein structure was collected from the Protein Data Bank. Research that employed cryogenic electron microscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and other advanced structural biology methods for molecular modeling was prioritized. After evaluating the findings of the final 40 studies, mutations in the synaptic proteins SHANK3 (G54W, L47P, G250D, R12C, L68P), SHANK2 (S557N), NLGN3 (R451C), NLGN4 (R101Q), and NRXN1 destabilize protein structure, reduce synaptic adhesion, and disrupt neurotransmitter clustering, which influences ASD symptoms. Advanced techniques reveal the molecular structure underlying ASD in animal models, which provides interventions like gene transplantation that can mitigate the effects of these mutations. However, challenges persist in finding treatments for the numerous molecular mechanisms contributing to ASD, emphasizing the need for further research into the structure of all ASD-related proteins.

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6. Downey M, Nayyar J, Guerin S, O’Connor C. When expectation meets experience: A qualitative analysis of serial interviews with adults before and after autism assessment. Autism. 2025: 13623613251384436.

With growing numbers of adults seeking and receiving autism diagnoses, understanding subjective experiences of this process is crucial for sensitive policy and practice. The route to diagnosis can be long and circuitous, yet most evidence on adults’ experiences of diagnosis relies on retrospective reports collected at a single point in time. The current study explores lived experiences of the diagnostic journey through serial qualitative interviews conducted in the weeks before and after adults’ autism diagnosis. Fourteen adults participated in online interviews over videoconferencing or email. Thematic analysis of the data suggested the diagnostic process could be characterised according to three themes. Journey to Self-Discovery identified the pursuit of diagnosis as rooted in a drive for self-understanding, propelled by anticipated benefits that were partially realised, and emotionally complex at all stages. Challenges with Navigating the Diagnostic Process highlighted how the process of acquiring and adjusting to a diagnosis was shaped by issues of resource access, system deficiencies, social inequalities and cognitive overwhelm. Isolation to Advocacy revealed how journeys that began in independent self-initiative evolved over time into community participation and advocacy. Providing original evidence of how lived experiences of adult autism diagnosis evolve across time, the current study offers valuable context for adults pursuing assessment, professionals performing assessments and policy-makers designing adult autism services.Lay abstractIncreasing numbers of people are receiving autism diagnoses in adulthood. Understanding their firsthand experience of diagnosis is crucial for improving supports for adults undergoing autism assessment. This study conducted interviews with adults at two time-points: one interview during the six weeks before their assessment, and a second interview within six weeks after their assessment. Fourteen people volunteered to participate in the study through videocall or email. The interview transcripts were analysed using a process called thematic analysis, with specialist software used to find patterns across people’s experiences. The analysis suggested that adults appreciated the role of diagnosis in helping develop a better understanding of themselves. Nevertheless, people had mixed emotions both leading up to the assessment and after their autism diagnosis. Adults experienced many challenges in arranging and undergoing the autism assessment. However, the process of getting a diagnosis helped many to move from feeling isolated to feeling part of a wider community. These findings will be useful to adults at different stages of the diagnosis process, and for professionals and policy-makers developing adult autism services.

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7. Franke F, Ertürk S, Maass JG, Kamionek D, Schubert T, Pitzer C, Theiß S, Fischer C, Gilmore RB, Dwornicki E, Bocke CR, Yosten GLC, Schaaf CP, Althammer F. In-depth behavioral characterization of a rat model of Schaaf-Yang syndrome. Sci Rep. 2025; 15(1): 37929.

Schaaf-Yang syndrome (SYS, OMIM #615547) is a rare neurodevelopmental disorder caused by truncating variants in the maternally imprinted MAGEL2 gene. It is characterized by intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorder, joint contractures, and feeding difficulties. Although MAGEL2 is deleted in most cases of Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS, OMIM #176270), SYS presents with more severe symptoms, suggesting pathogenic effects of truncated MAGEL2 beyond a mere loss of function. This study expands the behavioral characterization of a novel rat model (« Magel2(Pmut) rats ») which carries a truncating mutation on the paternal allele of Magel2, offering greater construct validity for SYS than previous animal models with Magel2 deletion. While an initial study provided first insights, key domains within the behavioral phenotype of the model remained unexplored. Our comprehensive behavioral analysis, including home-cage monitoring, ultrasonic vocalization analysis, and precise gait assessment, identified several phenotypic alterations potentially relevant to the study of SYS. Magel2(Pmut) rats exhibited abnormal feeding behavior, changes in early social communication, alterations in gait, aberrant behavior in the elevated plus maze, and delayed decision-making. Additionally, we confirmed that Magel2(Pmut) rats show phenotypes of abnormal social interaction. These results may reflect core symptoms seen in SYS, underscoring the value of this model for preclinical research on pathophysiology and therapeutics.

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8. Ganai UJ. Autistic traits, psychosis proneness, and empathy in preadolescents: A network analysis. Sci Rep. 2025; 15(1): 37922.

Autism spectrum disorder and psychotic disorders, although clinically distinct, share overlapping characteristics, particularly in the domain of social cognition. Both autistic traits and psychotic-like experiences (PLEs) are increasingly conceptualized as existing along a continuum within the general population. Empathy, a fundamental aspect of social cognition, is commonly associated with both conditions. This study examined the relationships among autistic traits, PLEs, and empathy in a large general-population sample of preadolescents using network analysis. Data were drawn from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study, including 9,214 participants (age range = 8.92 to 11.08 years; 4,850 males). Autistic traits were assessed using the abbreviated version of the Social Responsiveness Scale, Second Edition, which measures social and communication difficulties and restricted and repetitive behaviors. PLEs were evaluated using the Prodromal Questionnaire, Brief Child Version, which assesses hallucinations, thought delusions, and grandiose delusions. Associations among these constructs were modeled using both an undirected Gaussian graphical model and a directed acyclic graph (DAG). Higher empathy scores were negatively associated with elevated autistic traits (social and communication interactions and restricted and repetitive behaviors) and with PLEs (grandiose delusions). Moreover, higher levels of autistic traits were positively associated with greater distress related to grandiose delusions and hallucinations. Centrality analysis identified hallucinations as a key node in the network, a result supported by the DAG. Sex-specific analyses revealed subtle differences in network connectivity between males and females. These findings highlight the intricate interplay among autistic traits, PLEs, and empathy during preadolescence and emphasize empathy’s negative relationship with autistic traits. Overall, the results offer insight into shared social cognitive processes across neurodevelopmental and psychosis-spectrum traits.

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9. Heineman KR, Hielkema T, Teunissen M, van den Berg L. Early developmental outcome in Dravet syndrome: A scoping review of cognitive, language, behavioural and motor development in the first six years of life. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2025; 179: 106441.

Dravet syndrome (DS) is a severe developmental and epileptic encephalopathy. In the vast majority of the patients DS is associated with a mutation in the SCN1A gene. As a substantial number of children with an SCN1A mutation do not develop DS, but a less severe phenotype it is crucial to find early prognostic developmental biomarkers for developing DS. At present, little research has been conducted into early developmental biomarkers in DS in the first few years of life. The current scoping review provides an overview of developmental delay in the first six years of life in children with DS. Information is presented on four developmental domains: cognitive development, language and speech development, behavior and motor development. A systematic literature search in PubMed yielded ten articles which met the in- and exclusion criteria. Nine studies investigated cognition, four assessed language and speech development, five assessed behavior and five evaluated motor development. Some studies were based on retrospective data from medical records, some used parental surveys and others actually applied developmental assessments. Altogether, our findings suggest that developmental delay in DS already starts before the age of two years in the majority of children and is present in several developmental domains. It is first visible in the domain of motor development where it already appears after the first half year of life in part of the children, and is becoming apparent in the cognitive, language and behavioural domain after the age of one year in most children. Data available are limited.

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10. Hendi NI, Almosilhy NA, Mohammed OH, Abdelrehim AM, Eisa A, Saddoun HAA, Belakhdar A. The Efficacy and Safety of Bumetanide in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: An Updated Meta-analysis. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2025.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex range of neurodevelopmental disorders. The treatment of ASD is challenging since there are no approved drugs except for risperidone and aripiprazole, which have a limited effect on core symptoms and are associated with a wide range of adverse events. Bumetanide is a loop diuretic suggested to play a role in ASD symptoms by modulating the GABAergic system. This meta-analysis aims to evaluate the efficacy and safety of bumetanide on ASD symptom management. We included randomized controlled trials comparing bumetanide with placebo or conventional treatment. Our primary outcomes included the Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS), Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS-2), Clinical Global Impression- Efficacy Index (CGI-EI), Social interaction (SI), repetitive behavior and restricted interests (RRB), and adverse events. Bumetanide was associated with significant improvement in CARS total score (MD = -2.28; 95% CI = [-4.07, -0.49], p = 0.01) and CGI-EI (MD = 0.27; 95% CI = [0.09, 0.44], p = 0.003) compared to placebo. However, no significant difference was found in the SRS-2 score. Findings for SI and RRB were inconsistent depending on the pooled scales, with significant results observed when pooling SRS-2 but not when pooling ADOS. Bumetanide was generally safe and well-tolerated. Common adverse events include polyurea, hypokalemia, and dehydration. Although statistically significant improvements were observed on some measures, we cannot conclude the superiority of bumetanide in alleviating ASD symptoms. Further large clinical trials should be conducted to determine the effect of bumetanide on different symptoms of ASD and the variation in treatment effect among different patient populations.

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11. Jurkovičová-Tarabová B, Vargovič P, Mihalj D, Havránek T, Jakubíková J, László K, Bačová Z, Bakoš J. Altered Inhibitory Synaptic Transmission and Changes in GABAergic Markers in the Hippocampus of Genetic and Environmental Animal Model of Autism. Neurochem Res. 2025; 50(6): 340.

Changes in hippocampal neurons are known to play a critical role in social memory deficits associated with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Although the theory of excitatory-inhibitory imbalance in autism pathogenesis is well established, early developmental alterations in the hippocampus remain insufficiently characterized. Alterations in gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic neurons and their markers are thought to underlie synaptic changes in inhibitory circuits. Therefore, this study was designed to: (1) quantify glutamatergic and GABAergic neuron populations in the hippocampus; (2) characterize inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs) in primary hippocampal neurons; and (3) assess gene expression of selected GABAergic markers in two autism-like animal models, namely Shank3-deficient mice and prenatally valproate (VPA)-exposed rats. A reduced proportion of GABAergic neurons was observed in the hippocampus of both models. An increase in the number of glutamatergic neurons was found only in the hippocampus of prenatally VPA-exposed rats. This was accompanied by a decrease in IPSC frequency in primary hippocampal neurons from prenatally VPA-exposed rats, while no significant changes were found in Shank3-deficient mice. Altered temporal dynamics of inhibitory synaptic transmission were demonstrated in both models by a decreased cumulative probability of inter-event intervals for inhibitory currents. Furthermore, reduced gene expression levels of Gabarap and Gabarapl1 were detected in Shank3-deficient mice, whereas decreased Gat1 expression level was found in prenatally VPA-exposed rats at postnatal day 5. These findings strongly support the excitatory-inhibitory imbalance hypothesis in ASD. Thus, genetic or environmentally induced GABAergic changes in the hippocampus may underlie hippocampus-dependent social memory alterations in ASD.

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12. Kallitsounaki A, Fysh MC, Williams DM, Spinner L, Kennedy E. Behavioural phenotypes of autism in autistic and nonautistic gender clinic-referred youth and their caregivers. Autism. 2025: 13623613251379920.

In recent years, referrals of youth to specialised gender services have risen sharply, with ~11% of these youth diagnosed as autistic compared with a general population rate of ~1%. In two preregistered studies, we addressed this insufficiently understood intersection. In Study 1, we examined the number and developmental trajectory of autism traits in autistic and nonautistic gender clinic-referred and cisgender youth (aged 7-16 years) using both screening measures (Autism-Spectrum Quotient Children’s Version and Autism-Spectrum Quotient Adolescent Version, Social Communication Questionnaire-Lifetime) and diagnostic tools (Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised, Brief Observation of Symptoms of Autism). In Study 2, we examined autism traits among the caregivers of participants from each group using the Autism-Spectrum Quotient Adolescent Version. Study 1 results showed the autism phenotype in autistic gender clinic-referred youth closely resembled that of their cisgender autistic peers. In addition, after addressing methodological limitations in previous research, we found no evidence of elevated autism traits in nonautistic gender clinic-referred youth, challenging findings of some earlier studies. Study 2 provided evidence of familial aggregation of both autism traits and diagnoses among caregivers of both autistic gender clinic-referred and cisgender participants. Taken together, these findings challenge the hypothesis that autism in gender-diverse youth is merely a ‘phenomimic’ of autism and provide valuable clinical insights into the presentation of autism in this population.Lay abstractIn recent years, more young people have been referred to specialised gender clinics for support with their gender identity. Interestingly, about 11% of these young people are also diagnosed with autism-much higher than the general population rate of only around 1%. This overlap has raised important questions about how autism and gender diversity are related, and even whether autism traits in gender-diverse people with an autism diagnosis really reflect autism. In this research, we carried out two studies to understand this link better. In the first study, we looked at autism traits in gender-diverse children and adolescents aged 7-16 years who were referred to a gender clinic for issues with their gender identity. We compared them with both autistic and nonautistic children who were not referred to gender services. We used several standard tools to assess autism-related traits, including both questionnaires and clinical interviews. We found that gender-diverse youth who were also autistic showed similar patterns of autism traits as cisgender autistic children who were not exploring their gender. Importantly, nonautistic gender-diverse youth did not show unusually high levels of autism traits, which challenges some earlier studies that suggested they might. In the second study, we explored autism traits in the caregivers (mostly mothers) of the young people in our first study. We found that caregivers of autistic children-whether the children were gender-diverse or not-were more likely to be autistic than the caregivers of nonautistic children. Moreover, even nonautistic caregivers of autistic children displayed more autism traits than caregivers of nonautistic children, irrespective of whether their child was gender-diverse or not. Overall, our findings challenge the idea that autism in gender-diverse youth is just a mimic of ‘true’ autism caused by gender-related stress or experiences. Instead, the results point to genuine autism that presents in a typical way. This research provides important insights for clinicians and families, and highlights the need to take the gender-related concerns of autistic children as seriously as of nonautistic children.

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13. Kanzari C, Hawani A, Mkaouer B, Mrayeh M, Marsigliante S, Muscella A. Cognitive, social, and behavioral effects of music and motor intervention in children with autism spectrum disorder: the role of time of day. Front Pediatr. 2025; 13: 1683930.

This study aimed to determine the effect of 12 weeks of specific training (combining movement and music intervention) on children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), specifically by comparing the time of day (morning vs. afternoon) with cognitive functions, mood, and social integration. Thirty children (19 males, 11 females; mean age 7.8 ± 1.27 years) were randomly assigned to two groups: an Intervention Group and a Control Group (CG). The intervention protocol consisted of combined sessions of training, music, and motor activities, administered in a counterbalanced order: one session in the morning (9:00-9:45 a.m.) and one in the afternoon (4:00-4:45 p.m.). The control group continued their regular physical activity. Children were assessed at baseline and post-intervention for cognitive functions (Trail Making Test), maladaptive behaviors (RCS), and enjoyment (PACES). A repeated-measures ANOVA was used to analyze the interaction between the music and movement intervention and time of day. Results showed a significant increase in enjoyment in both experimental groups (morning and afternoon) compared to the control group (p < 0.001), with no significant difference between the morning and afternoon groups (p = 0.743). After 12 weeks, the experimental groups showed significant improvements in both stereotypical behaviors (p < 0.001) and cognitive functions (p < 0.001). However, the time of day did not significantly influence these improvements (p = 0.133 for stereotypical behaviors and p = 0.681 for cognitive functions). Significant improvements were observed in affective/emotional (p < 0.001) and motor control behaviors (p < 0.001), which partially reflect reductions in maladaptive behaviors. However, specific measures of social engagement did not show statistically significant changes (p > 0.05). Our study found no effect of time of day on the outcomes for children with autism spectrum disorders.

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14. Kimchi-Feldhorn O, Sade AN, Barak B. Myelin, white matter, and social deficits in autism spectrum disorder. Neural Regen Res. 2025.

Autism spectrum disorder is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by social interaction challenges, restricted and repetitive behaviors or interests, and communication difficulties. Emerging evidence suggests that disruptions in myelin, the fatty substance that insulates nerve fibers, may play a significant role in shaping the behavioral characteristics observed in individuals with autism spectrum disorder, particularly those related to social behavior. This article provides an overview of current understanding of the interplay between white matter and myelin deficits, social behavior, and autism spectrum disorder. As such, it aims to deepen our understanding of the underlying mechanisms of autism spectrum disorder and potentially contribute to the development of more targeted interventions and support strategies for individuals affected by the disorder.

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15. Krishnan SG, Orsmond GI. Adverse Childhood Experiences and Health Outcomes in Autistic Youth: A Comparison of Cumulative Risk and Latent Class Approaches. J Autism Dev Disord. 2025.

PURPOSE: Autistic youth experience high rates of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), yet little is known about how different ACEs are associated with mental and physical health outcomes. The aims of this study were to identify latent classes of ACEs in autistic youth and examine how ACEs, measured via cumulative risk or latent class approaches, were associated with mental and physical health outcomes in autistic youth. METHODS: We conducted a secondary analysis of the 2021-2022 National Survey of Children’s Health, a U.S. cross-sectional dataset. The sample included 1,332 autistic youth aged 12-17. A latent class analysis (LCA) of 12 ACE indicators was conducted. Logistic regressions examined associations between ACEs and mental health (anxiety or depression diagnosis) and physical health (poor/fair vs. good/excellent health), controlling for youth characteristics. For each outcome, two regressions were conducted: one using cumulative ACE count (0-12) and one using latent class membership. RESULTS: A 3-class LCA model best fit the data: (1) Low ACEs, (2) Bullying and Discrimination, and (3) Household Disruption and Community Violence. For each outcome, cumulative ACE count and latent classes predicted similar variability. Compared to the Low ACEs class, youth in Class 2 and Class 3 were > 120% more likely to have a diagnosis of anxiety or depression; youth in Class 2 were > 75% more likely to have poor physical health. CONCLUSION: Findings highlight distinct patterns of ACEs among autistic youth and their links to health outcomes. Tailoring supports to specific types of adversities experienced by youth may foster resilience and promote well-being.

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16. Kunze M, Wei Q, Bacon-Yates A, Pompan E, Lockwood H, Witthuhn N. Correction: Promoting Reciprocal Relationships with Flexibility, Coaching, and Teaching (PRRFCT Match): A Virtual Parent-Mediated Intervention Package for Young Children with Developmental Disabilities. J Autism Dev Disord. 2025.

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17. Lei J, Attwood J, Russell A. Exploring the suitability of the Clark and Wells (1995) model of social anxiety in autistic adults: The role of mental imagery and fear of negative evaluation. Autism. 2025: 13623613251379945.

Around 50% of autistic adults meet diagnostic criteria for social anxiety disorder based on self-report questionnaires. Among non-autistic adults with social anxiety, distorted negative self-imagery in social situations stemming from fear of negative evaluation from observers can be corrected in cognitive therapy via video feedback. However, the role of social imagery in the maintenance of social anxiety has not been explored in autistic adults. This study examined in 62 autistic adults: (1) quality of social imagery elicited during social situations; (2) how image qualities were related to self-reported levels of social anxiety and fear of negative evaluation when accounting for co-occurring generalised anxiety. Many autistic adults reported social imagery from a field (i.e., looking through one’s own eyes) rather than observer perspective. Using response surface analysis (RSA), autistic adults wanted to escape from/avoid social imagery and found them more upsetting when social anxiety was greater than fear of negative evaluation from others. Social imagery may be linked to autistic adults’ somatic and sensory responses related to social anxiety rather than cognitive worries associated with fear of negative evaluation from others in social situations. Future studies can explore how qualitative differences in social imagery may influence maintenance of social anxiety and treatment efficacy in autistic and non-autistic adults over time.Lay abstractMany autistic adults experience social anxiety, which can negatively impact on one’s quality of life and increase risk for developing other mental health difficulties if left untreated. Current treatment for social anxiety involves supporting individuals to identify their worries in social situations and explore how focusing on one’s worries about being judged by others might generate an unhelpful and inaccurate negative image of oneself in social situations. In treatment, individuals use video feedback to look for differences between how they think they might come across to others, versus how they actually come across to others in conversation. Correcting any overly negative and unhelpful images of oneself in social situations is a key step in treatment for social anxiety. To date, little is known about whether autistic adults also generate negative images of oneself in social situations, and whether these images are related to one’s worries about being judged by others. In this study, we interviewed 62 autistic adults and asked them to generate images about relaxed and social situations. Autistic adults found images generated about being in a social situation to be more upsetting and anxiety inducing, less controllable and wanted to escape from/avoid such images. Negative aspects of social images were more related to general feelings of social anxiety rather than specific worries about being perceived negatively by others. We propose that autistic adults may draw on bodily sensations and sensory experiences related to general distress or feelings of discomfort to generate images in social situations. This is different to non-autistic adults where images may be generated based on one’s belief of how others might negative perceive oneself in social situations. Understanding such differences and the role images play in social anxiety for autistic and non-autistic adults can help clinicians better adapt treatment for social anxiety to suit autistic adults’ needs.

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18. Loftus T, Yau SH, Byrne J, Mathersul DC. Co-designed Yoga Intervention for Anxiety in Autistic Children: Protocol for a Randomized Waitlist-Controlled Trial. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2025.

Autistic children experience higher rates of anxiety compared to their nonautistic peers; however, psychotherapeutic treatments for anxiety such as cognitive behavioral therapy often have limited effectiveness in this population. This study protocol presents a novel, co-designed video-recorded yoga intervention for anxiety, tailored to the unique needs of autistic children. The proposed randomized controlled trial aims to evaluate the efficacy of this intervention compared to a treatment-as-usual waitlist control group. Primary outcomes include changes in anxiety severity, assessed using the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule or DSM-5 (ADIS-5) and the Anxiety Scale for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASC-ASD). Secondary outcomes examine emotion regulation and intolerance of uncertainty using the Emotion Dysregulation Inventory (EDI) and the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale Child version (IUSC), alongside physiological changes in heart rate variability. Data will be analyzed using repeated measures analysis to assess intervention effects, with mediation analysis exploring the roles of emotion regulation, intolerance of uncertainty, and autonomic function in anxiety reduction. Findings will contribute to the growing evidence base for complementary interventions in autistic populations. If effective, this co-designed yoga intervention could provide an accessible, adaptable, and scalable option for treating anxiety in autistic children, particularly those facing barriers to traditional therapies.

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19. Logan M. Tylenol autism lawsuit: Drug makers are sued by Texas attorney general. Bmj. 2025; 391: r2276.

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20. Long L, Zhang H, Liu J, Zhou J, Bao P. Behavioral Postprandial Distress in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Behavioral Clues Beyond Physiology. J Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2025; 31(4): 543-4.

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21. Pollock A, Krupka Z. Late bloomers: Exploring the emotional landscape of Australian women’s experiences of a late Autism diagnosis. Autism. 2025: 13623613251386983.

Gendered expectations significantly influence how Autism is recognised in women, often contributing to misdiagnosis and delayed identification. This study explored the experiences of Autistic women diagnosed after 30 in Australia. Using a cross-sectional qualitative design, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 Autistic women with a median age of 47.5 years. Participants were recruited through purposive sampling on social media, and reflexive thematic analysis was used for data examination, with careful consideration of researcher reflexivity. Seven key emotionally centred themes were identified from the participants’ diagnostic journeys: (1) Frustration at the Barriers Surrounding a Diagnosis, (2) Fear and Self-Doubt on the Path to Self-Acceptance, (3) The Grief of Revisiting the Past, (4) Shock of the New Self, (5) Anger at Being Dismissed, (6) The Relief of Authenticity, and (7) Pride and Belonging in Community. The findings revealed the significant impact of ‘Autistic burnout’ and the challenges of accessing practitioners knowledgeable about Autism in women. Participants expressed a range of emotions stemming from having the validity of their struggles questioned and receiving a notable lack of post-diagnostic support. This study highlights the critical need for inclusive, gender-sensitive diagnosis, as well as greater understanding of the nuanced experiences of Autistic women.Understanding the Emotional Experiences of Australian Autistic Women Diagnosed Later in LifeAutistic women often experience delayed recognition and understanding that they are Autistic due to gendered expectations and stereotypes about Autism. This study explored the experiences of women in Australia who received an Autism diagnosis after the age of 30. It aimed to uncover the challenges they faced and the emotional impact of their diagnostic journey.Ten women participated in interviews where they shared their stories. They described how difficult it was to find professionals who understood how Autism presents in women and discussed the associated emotional toll. The research identified seven key themes that highlight the emotional aspects of their journeys:1. Frustration with the challenges of getting a diagnosis2. Fear and uncertainty while trying to accept themselves3. Sadness and regret when looking back on their past4. Surprise and confusion at discovering new parts of their identity5. Anger at being ignored or dismissed by others6. Relief in understanding and accepting who they truly are7. A sense of pride and belonging within the Autistic communityMany participants described experiencing ‘Autistic burnout’, which is extreme physical, mental, and emotional exhaustion, often due to masking their Autism to meet societal expectations. They also reported feeling invalidated when their struggles were questioned and noted a lack of support after their diagnosis.This study highlights the need for diagnostic practices that consider gender differences and societal influences, as well as better support systems for newly diagnosed Autistic women. Improving these areas could help ensure earlier diagnoses and provide better care, ultimately amplifying the voices of this often-overlooked community.

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22. Praticò AD, Di Stefano L, Sciuto L, Di Napoli C, Pecorino B, Polizzi A, Ruggieri M. The Complex Interplay of Adverse Prenatal and Neonatal Events, Genetic Predisposition, and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Retrospective Analysis. Pediatr Neurol. 2025; 174: 8-19.

BACKGROUND: To evaluate the interplay of genetic predispositions and prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal risk factors in children with Level 3 Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). METHODS: This retrospective study included 77 children with Level 3-ASD from a Sicilian pediatric cohort. We systematically reviewed medical records to assess prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal risk factors, alongside genetic findings. Genetic testing included chromosomal microarray and next-generation sequencing for the identification of pathogenic or likely pathogenic variants. Statistical analyses were performed to evaluate the correlation between cumulative risk factors and positive genetic findings, focusing on the role of chromosomal copy number variations (CNVs) and point mutations. RESULTS: Of the 77 children included, 54.5% showed a positive genetic finding, including CNVs or pathogenic single-gene variants. All patients had at least one prenatal risk factor, while postnatal complications were present in 48.1%. CNV carriers exhibited a significantly higher burden of both prenatal (mean = 6.70) and neonatal (mean = 2.40) risk factors compared to other groups (P < 0.001). Genetically positive patients had a significantly higher cumulative risk factor load than genetically negative ones (P = 0.0006). Low birth weight, hyperbilirubinemia, and early neurological comorbidities were significantly associated with genetic findings (odds ratio = 10.0, 7.1, and 12.0, respectively). No single risk factor significantly differentiated CNV from single-gene cases. LASSO regression identified neurological comorbidities, hyperbilirubinemia, cesarean delivery, and hypoglycemia as independent predictors of genetic positivity. Overall, genetic predisposition correlated with increased perinatal and neonatal complications. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the multifactorial nature of ASD and supports integrating genetic and environmental assessments into early diagnostic strategies. Early genetic screening and targeted interventions in infants with multiple risk factors may aid in reducing ASD risk and improving outcomes.

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23. Rakap S, Gulboy E, Bayrakdar U, Cure G, Besdere B, Aydin B. Assessing AI-Generated Autism Information for Healthcare Use: A Cross-Linguistic and Cross-Geographic Evaluation of ChatGPT, Gemini, and Copilot. Healthcare (Basel). 2025; 13(21).

Background/Objectives: Autism is one of the most prevalent neurodevelopmental conditions globally, and healthcare professionals including pediatricians, developmental specialists, and speech-language pathologists, play a central role in guiding families through diagnosis, treatment, and support. As caregivers increasingly turn to digital platforms for autism-related information, artificial intelligence (AI) tools such as ChatGPT, Gemini, and Microsoft Copilot are emerging as popular sources of guidance. However, little is known about the quality, readability, and reliability of information these tools provide. This study conducted a detailed comparative analysis of three widely used AI models within defined linguistic and geographic contexts to examine the quality of autism-related information they generate. Methods: Responses to 44 caregiver-focused questions spanning two key domains-foundational knowledge and practical supports-were evaluated across three countries (USA, England, and Türkiye) and two languages (English and Turkish). Responses were coded for accuracy, readability, actionability, language framing, and reference quality. Results: Results showed that ChatGPT generated the most accurate content but lacked reference transparency; Gemini produced the most actionable and well-referenced responses, particularly in Turkish; and Copilot used more accessible language but demonstrated lower overall accuracy. Across tools, responses often used medicalized language and exceeded recommended readability levels for health communication. Conclusions: These findings have critical implications for healthcare providers, who are increasingly tasked with helping families evaluate and navigate AI-generated information. This study offers practical recommendations for how providers can leverage the strengths and mitigate the limitations of AI tools when supporting families in autism care, especially across linguistic and cultural contexts.

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24. Roberts E, Francesconi M, Flouri E. The relationship between childhood autistic traits and diurnal cortisol activity in adolescence. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2025; 183: 107672.

BACKGROUND: Autistic adolescents experience higher levels of stress compared to non-autistic adolescents. Chronic stress is associated with dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which can be measured by cortisol levels. Previous studies investigating cortisol activity in autistic adolescents are predominantly cross-sectional, have small sample sizes, exclude females, and include those with a clinical diagnosis of autism. The currently study sought to prospectively examine whether the severity and persistence of autistic traits in childhood is associated with cortisol activity in adolescence in a population-representative cohort. METHODS: Data from 915 participants from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) were used. Bivariate correlations were calculated between autistic traits (using the Social Communication Disorders Checklist) at ages 8, 11 and 14 years and four cortisol activity indices at age 15 years (diurnal cortisol slope, cortisol awakening response (CAR), total morning cortisol, and daily total cortisol output). Regression analyses investigated the effect of autistic traits on cortisol activity, before and after adjustment for confounders. RESULTS: Being likely autistic (i.e., demonstrating severe and persistent autistic traits across ages 8-14 years) was associated with increased CAR, even after adjustment for confounders. No associations were observed between autistic traits and diurnal cortisol slope, total morning cortisol, or total daily cortisol output. CONCLUSION: The observation that autistic traits are associated with CAR, but not other cortisol activity indicators, suggests this may not reflect a generalised HPA axis dysfunction in autistic youth, but a heightened situational response during periods of transition and increased anticipatory stress.

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25. Robinson M, Wettschurack K, Halurkar MS, Chen X, Zhang Z, Zhang J, Yang Y. Precision medicine for sodium channelopathy-related autism and epilepsy. Trends Mol Med. 2025.

Precision medicines for monogenic brain disorders are rapidly advancing. Voltage-gated sodium channel (VGSC) genes are the leading monogenic cause of severe epilepsy and profound autism spectrum disorder (ASD), most notably SCN1A, SCN2A, SCN3A, and SCN8A. Recent advances in animal and human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) disease models provide a powerful platform for advancing precision medicines. Thanks to the genomic revolution, many gene therapies are in preclinical studies and clinical trials for VGSC-related diseases, including viral vector gene replacement, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) base editing, prime editing, and genetic modulation strategies including antisense oligonucleotides, engineered tRNAs, and CRISPR activation/interference (CRISPRa/i). This review highlights the latest advances in disease modeling and next-generation therapeutic development to advance precision medicine for VGSC-related brain disorders.

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26. Sapey-Triomphe LA, Bouet R, Mattout J, Sonié S, Schmitz C, Lecaignard F. Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Mismatch Negativity in Autism: Insights Into Predictive Mechanisms. Autism Res. 2025.

Mismatch negativity (MMN) has been frequently used to assess auditory processing and change detection in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), but findings have been fairly inconsistent. To address this issue, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of MMN amplitude (76 effect sizes) and latency (62 effect sizes) in ASD to identify factors contributing to this heterogeneity and to interpret findings within the predictive coding framework. While residual heterogeneity remained, significant effects of the interaction between age group and design type (unifeature vs. multifeature, i.e., one or several types of deviants) and deviant type were found for MMN amplitude. In multifeature designs, autistic children and adolescents exhibited reduced MMN amplitudes compared to neurotypical peers (g = 0.25, p = 0.01), whereas autistic adults showed increased MMN amplitudes (g = -0.26, p = 0.02). In addition, autistic individuals had significantly smaller MMN amplitudes than neurotypical individuals in paradigms using phoneme deviants (g = 0.41, p < 0.001). Across designs, no significant MMN latency differences were observed between neurotypical and autistic individuals. These results are discussed within the predictive coding framework, as MMN responses are thought to reflect prediction errors, aligning with theories suggesting heightened prediction errors in autistic adults. Future studies with larger samples and improved data reporting are needed to further clarify the developmental trajectory and variability of MMN responses in ASD. Additionally, computational modeling approaches can help characterize learning dynamics and disentangle predictive coding accounts among autistic individuals.

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27. Thys L, Beysen D, Janssens K, Jansen AC, Gueguen N, LeMao M, Fontaine F, Allouche S, Lenaers G, Meuwissen M. Accumulation of complex I assembly intermediates in a novel presentation of RTN4IP1-related disorder with developmental delay, ataxia and dyskinesia. Mol Genet Metab. 2025; 146(3): 109266.

BACKGROUND: Biallelic variants in RTN4IP1 (OPA10) are associated with a wide phenotypic spectrum including optic atrophy with or without ataxia, impaired intellectual development and seizures (OMIM 616732). Brain imaging ranges from normal to white matter changes and cerebral atrophy. Earlier literature has reported a combined complex I and IV deficiency in RTN4IP1 cases. RESULTS: We report on three siblings, compound heterozygous for novel RTN4IP1 variants who presented with a movement disorder with pronounced dyskinesia along with developmental delay, optic atrophy and ataxia. Furthermore, atypical brain MRI findings with symmetrical bilateral substantia nigra abnormalities were observed in two of them. Blue native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis performed on fibroblasts of two patients revealed a defect in the complex I assembly process. CONCLUSION: Thus, we expand the clinical spectrum of RTN4IP1-associated disease with movement disorder, substantia nigra abnormalities and complex I assembly defects.

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28. Wootton O, Campbell P, Richardson S, Lindsay SJ, Huang QQ, Delage E, Amanat S, Wong HS, Firth HV, Hurles ME, Simpson MA, Radford EJ, Martin HC. Investigating the interplay between prematurity and genetic variation in the context of rare developmental disorders. Genome Med. 2025; 17(1): 134.

BACKGROUND: Rare damaging genetic variation accounts for a substantial proportion of the risk of rare developmental disorders (DDs), but common genetic variants as well as environmental factors, including prematurity, also contribute. Little is known about the interplay between prematurity and genetic variation in influencing phenotypic outcomes in DDs, nor about how genetic factors may contribute to risk of preterm birth in DDs. METHODS: We leveraged phenotypic and genetic data from 21,712 patients with DDs recruited for clinical sequencing, 16% of whom were born prematurely. Using multivariable regression models, we compared phenotypic features and the prevalence of diagnostic genetic variation in specific genes between preterm and term individuals with DDs. We tested whether the fraction of cases attributable to de novo mutations differed between term and preterm probands. Additionally, we assessed whether associations between common variant contributions to education-related traits and prematurity are explained by direct genetic effects. RESULTS: Prematurity was associated with more severe clinical phenotypes among these DD patients, including more affected organ systems and more delayed developmental milestones. Prematurity and the presence of a monogenic diagnosis contributed additively to severity. We found that genes associated with fetal anomalies were enriched for diagnostic mutations among preterm individuals (p = 7.83 × 10(-5)). We also demonstrated an exome-wide enrichment of de novo mutations (DNMs) in both term and preterm probands; the fraction of cases explained by DNMs in known DD-associated genes was higher in term than preterm cases (25% versus 20%) but DNMs in as-yet-undiscovered genes likely contribute approximately equally to both groups (14% versus 13%). Finally, we showed that the positive association between polygenic predisposition to education-related traits and gestational duration is likely to be the result of genetically influenced parental traits or confounders, rather than direct genetic effects in the child, and that a monogenic diagnosis modifies this association. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings emphasise the importance of considering environmental factors like prematurity in understanding outcomes in DDs suspected to have a genetic component, and motivate further exploration of the role that genetic variation plays in influencing prematurity.

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29. Xavier L, Kalabarathi S, Padmapriya D. Literature Review: Resilience-Building Practices in Autism Parenting. J Pharm Bioallied Sci. 2025; 17(Suppl 3): S2123-s5.

Parenting a child with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) presents persistent emotional, social, and logistical challenges that can significantly impact family wellbeing. In response, the concept of parental resilience has emerged as a critical area of research and intervention. This paper explores resilience-building practices among parents of children with ASD, highlighting the strategies that enable them to adapt positively despite ongoing stress. Drawing from existing literature, the review identifies key protective factors such as social support, positive reframing, self-care, and access to targeted interventions. Additionally, it examines the role of adaptive coping mechanisms, including problem-focused and emotion-focused strategies, in enhancing caregiver resilience. The paper also discusses the impact of resilience on family cohesion, parental mental health, and child development outcomes. Findings suggest that resilience is not a fixed trait but a dynamic process influenced by internal strengths and external resources. Recognizing and supporting these resilience-building practices can inform the development of culturally sensitive, family-centered support systems and improve outcomes for both parents and children navigating the autism spectrum.

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30. Yuan M, Wang Q, Lu Y, Xu P, Pan C, Zhang W, Lu H. Comparison of gut viral communities between autism spectrum disorder and healthy children. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2025; 15: 1660970.

INTRODUCTION: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder, which brings a great burden to the family and society. Gut microbiota is considered to be an important factor in ASD that easily affects function and development of the immune, metabolic, and nervous systems. However, most available studies have mainly focused on the altered gut bacteria, our knowledge of gut viruses in ASD children remains limited. METHODS: In this study, we collected fecal samples from ASD children and healthy controls, then analyzed and compared the differences of the gut viral communities between the two groups by viral metagenomic techniques. RESULTS: The alpha diversity of the ASD virome was lower than that of the healthy virome, and the beta diversity had a significant difference between ASD and healthy children. Podoviridae accounted for the highest proportion of viruses in ASD patients, while Alphaflexiviridae was dominant in healthy controls. There was a statistical difference in the abundance of Microviridae between the two groups. Additionally, human astrovirus, picobirnavirus, and norovirus were detected by phylogenetic analysis. DISCUSSION: This study revealed that alpha diversity was reduced in children with ASD, and different compositions in gut viral communities were observed between ASD patients and healthy controls. Changes in viral diversity and composition deepen our understanding of the differences in the gut viral communities between ASD and healthy children, and also provides a perspective for further exploration of viruses related to ASD children.

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31. Zhang H, Chen S, Yu J, Chen F, Yan J, Wang L. Capability well-being in mothers and fathers of autistic children: a cross-sectional study from China. BMC Psychol. 2025; 13(1): 1204.

BACKGROUND: Parents of autistic children often experience reduced well-being, with most studies focusing on negative outcomes. However, fewer studies have applied capability approach to assess parental abilities to achieve positive functioning. This study aims to evaluate well-being in parents of autistic children, with a particular attention to differences between mothers and fathers. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study of 366 parents of children aged 1–17 years with a definitive diagnosis in China, including 318 mothers and 48 fathers. Parental well-being was assessed using the Investigating Choice Experiments Capability Measures for Adults (ICECAP-A), which captures key domains of well-being. We employed the United Kingdom tariffs to calculate index scores of the ICECAP-A. Stepwise multivariate linear regression models were performed to identify predictors of parental well-being. RESULTS: The mean score of the ICECAP-A among parents was 0.672 (SD 0.214), with a significant gender disparity (p = 0.012, rank-biserial correction = 0.131, 95%CI [0.030, 0.227]). Mothers perceived a lower level of well-being than fathers in the domains of autonomy (β=-0.022, p < 0.01) and achievement (β=-0.021, p < 0.001). Risk factors for impaired parental well-being included more severe autistic symptoms, lower socioeconomic status of parents, and a considerably longer time spent on caretaking of the child. CONCLUSIONS: Professionals should prioritize gender-specific intervention programs tailored to the distinct needs of mothers and fathers, and actively promote and facilitate father involvement in the childcare. Evidence-based psychosocial support services need to be specifically designed for high-risk parent populations, especially those facing intensive caregiving burdens, socioeconomic disadvantages, or parenting autistic children with more severe symptoms.

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32. Zhang X, Robertson RE, McCarthy T, Scenna CM. Using Speech-Generating Devices to Improve Manding With One Icon in Children With Autism: A Systematic Review. J Autism Dev Disord. 2025.

PURPOSE: This is a systematic review investigating factors that influence children’s learning of speech-generating devices (SGDs) for manding with a single icon. The review addressed three questions: (1) the demographic characteristics of participants involved in SGD studies, (2) the effectiveness of different teaching strategies, and (3) the impact of intervention dosage on the acquisition of manding responses using Tau-U. METHODS: This review focused on peer-reviewed journal articles that studied Mand learning with SGDs in children with autism, employing a single-case design and behavioral teaching procedures. ProQuest, the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), and PsycINFO were accessed in September 2023 for this review. Through a comprehensive analysis of 14 peer-reviewed studies from these databases, the progress of 42 participants was compared across different instructional methods. The review contrasted three major instructional methods with time delays: least-to-most prompting, most-to-least prompting, and full physical prompting. RESULTS: Participants’ demographics aligned with statistics from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The settings of the studies indicated a potential literature gap in teaching manding in naturally occurring settings. The Tau-U scores suggested similar effectiveness between the most-to-least and least-to-most prompting procedures, but peer mediation was recommended. CONCLUSION: No linear relationship was found between the effectiveness of the treatment and treatment dosage based on Tau-U scores. Several research trends were identified. This study noted an uneven distribution of intervention methods across the studies, and the total number of participants was limited. The findings could inform practitioners on teaching manding with a single icon from an SGD and suggest directions for future research on teaching the use of SGDs for manding in children with autism.

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