1. Correction to « Population Pharmacokinetic Analysis of Atomoxetine and its Metabolites in Children and Adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder ». Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2026; 119(1): 276.

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2. Al Barathie J, El-Jamal M, Karam EG. Exploring ADHD through the Lens of temperament: The TEMPS-A connection. J Affect Disord. 2026; 392: 120251.

BACKGROUND: Temperament has been increasingly studied in relation to neurodevelopmental disorders, including Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). This study examines the association between ADHD and affective temperament traits using the Temperament Scale of Memphis, Pisa, Paris, and San Diego (TEMPS-A) in a clinical outpatient sample in Beirut, Lebanon. METHODS: This cross-sectional study included 2,564 psychiatric outpatients aged 15 or older who completed the TEMPS-A. ADHD diagnosis was determined through clinical assessments based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5) criteria. Statistical analyses included descriptive comparisons and multivariate logistic regression, with temperament trait scores categorized based on Lebanese population norms. RESULTS: Participants had an average age of 38.53 years, with females comprising 52.3 % of the sample. Bivariate analyses showed ADHD was associated with higher cyclothymic (CT), hyperthymic (HT), and irritable (IT) temperament trait scores. After adjusting for age, gender, and comorbidities, only IT remained a significant risk factor for ADHD (OR = 2.73, 95 % CI: 1.23-6.09), while depressive temperament trait (DT) emerged as a protective factor (OR = 0.38, 95 % CI: 0.17-0.87). CONCLUSION: Our findings highlight the complex relationship between temperament traits and ADHD. IT was a significant risk factor, while DT unexpectedly appeared protective. These results underscore the need for further investigation into temperament traits as a diagnostic and therapeutic consideration in ADHD.

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3. Andersson A, Garcia-Argibay M, Oskarsson S, Ludvigsson JF, Lichtenstein P, D’Onofrio BM, Tuvblad C, Ghirardi L, Larsson H. Pregnancy Outcomes in Women Diagnosed With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Population-Based Register Study. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2026; 153(1): 34-43.

BACKGROUND: Maternal attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has been associated with various pregnancy outcomes, but the degree to which that association is explained by concomitant mental disorders and smoking during pregnancy remains unclear. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the association between maternal ADHD and pregnancy outcomes. METHODS: Through the Swedish Medical Birth Register, we identified 977,266 women who gave birth to a live singleton between January 1, 2006, and December 1, 2020 (1,617,121 pregnancies). Of these, 1.3% (12,553 women; 17,434 pregnancies) had an ADHD diagnosis prior to pregnancy. The primary outcome was preterm birth (< 37 weeks), with secondary outcomes being postterm birth (> 41 weeks), small for gestational age, large for gestational age, birth weight (≤ 2500, 2501-3500, > 4500 g), acute and planned cesarean section, assisted vaginal delivery, preeclampsia, and gestational diabetes. Generalized linear mixed-effects models adjusted for maternal age, year of childbirth, maternal education, comorbid mental disorders, and smoking during pregnancy. RESULTS: There were 1089 (6.6%) preterm births among women with ADHD, and 73,423 (4.9%) preterm births among women without an ADHD diagnosis, corresponding to a crude OR of 1.33 (95% CI 1.25, 1.42). This association attenuated to nonsignificance after adjusting for maternal age, year of childbirth, maternal education, and comorbid mental disorders (adjOR = 1.06, 95% CI: 0.99, 1.13). Fully adjusted models revealed that ADHD was associated with an increased risk of having a large for gestational age baby (adjOR = 1.16, 95% CI: 1.06, 1.26) and undergoing a planned caesarean section (adjOR = 1.16, 95% CI: 1.06, 1.26). Sensitivity analyses using a broader ADHD definition suggested associations with preterm birth (adjOR = 1.09, 95% CI: 1.04, 1.15) and acute caesarean section (adjOR = 1.09, 95% CI: 1.04, 1.13). CONCLUSIONS: After adjustments for comorbid mental disorders and smoking during pregnancy, maternal ADHD was not associated with preterm birth. An increased risk of delivering large for gestational age babies and undergoing planned caesarean sections was found in women with ADHD.

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4. Axelsdottir AE, Gudmundsdottir A, Thorsteinsdottir I, Einarssonr I, Leifsdottir K. [Neurodevelopmental Disorders in Preterm Children born in Iceland between 2012 and 2017]. Laeknabladid. 2026; 112(1): 17-23.

INTRODUCTION: Survival among extremely preterm infants has increased markedly due to advances in neonatal care. These children remain at elevated risk for neuropsychological difficulties, particularly ADHD, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and executive function deficits, which impacts learning, behavior, and emotional regulation. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of such difficulties at 6-7 years of age and the proportion referred to The Councelling and Diagnostic Center (CDC). METHODS: This was a retrospective cohort study. Data from neuropsychological assessments by the Children’s Hospital follow-up care for preterm infants and CDC evaluations were analyzed using RStudio 4.3.3. RESULTS: The cohort included 60 children born before 28 weeks of gestation and/or with birthweight below 1000g. 18 (30.0%) were followed at the CDC and 45 underwent neuropsychological assessment at the Children’s Hospital. Attention difficulties were present in 53.3%, executive function deficits in 46.7%, hyperactivity in 28.6%, and signs of ASD in 13.3%. Full-scale IQ could not be determined in 64.4% of the children due to significant discrepancies between subtest scores, making it an unreliable measure of cognitive ability. Significant differences in the ability to obtain a full-scale IQ score (p<05) by sex. No significant associations were observed with ADHD or ASD or executive function deficits. CONCLUSION: Neurodevelopmental disorders are common among extremely preterm infants, and the findings suggest that a large proportion of them need to undergo further diagnostic evaluation. The results also indicate that many will require support within the educational and healthcare systems.

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5. Benbir Senel G, DelRosso LM. A preliminary analysis of large muscle group movements in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Sleep Med. 2026; 137: 106899.

INTRODUCTION: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder diagnosed in children, but often persists into adulthood. Sleep disturbances frequently manifest as comorbid conditions in ADHD, leading to increased behavioral and emotional impairments. We aimed to investigate restless sleep, characterized by increased large muscle group movements (LMMs), and their role in sleep architecture among adults diagnosed with ADHD in compared to healthy controls. METHODS: A total of 21 adults with ADHD and 25 healthy controls were included. Full-night polysomnographic recordings of all participants were scored for sleep, sleep-related events and for LMMs. RESULTS: Total LMM index did not differ between groups, while LMM indices during NREM sleep were consistently lower in the ADHD group (p < 0.008). Age was negatively correlated with LMM associated with arousal (t = -0.434; p = 0.049) and wakefulness (t = -0.446; p = 0.043) in NREM sleep. Sleep efficiency showed a negative correlation with LMM associated with wakefulness (t = -0.442; p = 0.045) and total LMM (t = -0.437; p = 0.048) in NREM sleep. Wakefulness after sleep onset was positively correlated with LMM associated with wakefulness in NREM sleep (t = 0.464; p = 0.034). Serum ferritin levels were significantly lower in ADHD patients (p = 0.004), and inversely correlated with LMM associated with arousal and wakefulness in NREM sleep. DISCUSSION: Our study showed that, although ADHD patients exhibited lower LMM indices, particularly in NREM sleep, LMMs are significantly correlated with markers of sleep fragmentation (increased WASO and reduced sleep efficiency). Our findings also showed that low ferritin levels are correlated with poor sleep quality, especially when motor restlessness is suspected in patients with ADHD.

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6. Burns GL, Montaño JJ, Becker SP, Servera M. Psychometric and Normative Information on the Child and Adolescent Behavior Inventory With Parent Ratings in a Nationally Representative Sample of Spanish Youth. Assessment. 2026; 33(1): 77-88.

Psychometric and normative information is provided for the Child and Adolescent Behavior Inventory (CABI) cognitive disengagement syndrome, anxiety, depression, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)-inattention, ADHD-hyperactivity/impulsivity, oppositional defiant disorder, social impairment, peer rejection, withdrawal from peer interactions, and academic impairment scales with a nationally representative sample of Spanish youth. Parents of 5,525 Spanish youth (ages 5-16, 56.1% males) completed the CABI scales on their sons and daughters. Scores on the 10 CABI scales demonstrated excellent reliability, invariance, and validity for males and females within early childhood (ages 5-8), middle childhood (ages 9-12), and adolescence (ages 13-16). Normative information (T-scores) is provided for females and males within each age group for the 10 CABI scales. The new psychometric and normative information increase the usefulness of the CABI scale scores for research and clinical activities. Copies of the CABI and the norms are available at no cost to professionals.

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7. Cai Y, Holmes J, Gathercole SE. Associations Between ADHD Symptom Dimensions and Cognition in Children With ADHD and Learning Difficulties. J Atten Disord. 2026; 30(1): 131-51.

BACKGROUND: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Specific Learning Difficulties (SLD) are both associated with attentional and cognitive difficulties. This study examined the extent to which the cognitive impairments could be consequences of elevated levels of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity. METHOD: Secondary analysis was conducted on data from four groups selected from the Centre for Attention, Learning, and Memory, a neurodivergent cohort of children aged 5 to 18 years with a mean age of 9 years : children with ADHD only (n = 70), learning difficulties only (n = 406), ADHD with learning difficulties (n = 128), and a comparison group (n = 166). Covariance analyses examined whether any differences in basic cognitive skills and higher executive functions between the neurodivergent and comparison groups could result from variations in inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity. RESULTS: Irrespective of ADHD status, children with learning difficulties had low scores in short-term memory, working memory, sustained attention, processing speed, set sequencing, and set shifting. These cognitive deficits largely persisted when inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity were covaried. In contrast, the ADHD only group performed at age-appropriate levels on measures of verbal short-term memory, verbal and visuospatial working memory, processing speed, and sustained attention. Their difficulties with set sequencing and visuospatial short-term memory were accounted for by inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity, whereas their challenges with set shifting were independent of these attentional behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: The results point to distinct neurodevelopmental pathways to cognitive functioning for children with learning difficulties and those with ADHD. The independence of learning-related cognitive skills from levels of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity in children with learning difficulties either with or without ADHD suggests they represent the core deficits that underlie their learning difficulties. The limited cognitive challenges of children with ADHD without learning difficulties may be consequences of their elevated levels of attentional behaviors. Understanding the cognitive and learning profiles of children with ADHD and learning difficulties vital for identifying optimal intervention and support strategies that address their individual needs.

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8. Cecchelli C, Moradei C, Cocchetti C, Grassi G. Gender Dysphoria and Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Prevalence of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Among Adults with Gender Dysphoria and Their Clinical Phenotype. Clin Neuropsychiatry. 2025; 22(6): 507-16.

OBJECTIVE: Despite the increasing amount of data showing the presence of high association between gender dysphoria (GD) and autism spectrum disorders, less is known on the association between GD and other neurodevelopmental disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The aim of this study was to examine the prevalence and clinical features of ADHD in a group of adults with a primary diagnosis of GD. METHOD: A sample of 81 consecutive adults newly diagnosed with GD were assessed using standardized self-report measures evaluating GD severity, mood and anxiety symptoms, and ADHD. GD participants with associated ADHD were compared to participants without ADHD regarding gender dysphoria symptoms, mood and anxiety symptoms, and functional impairment. RESULTS: We found a 33.3% prevalence of ADHD among GD individuals. Those with GD and ADHD had a significantly higher lifetime prevalence of psychiatric co-occurrence-particularly borderline personality disorder and cannabis use disorder- along with greater mood (U = 3.805, p < .001) and anxiety symptoms (U = 3.717, p < .001), and more severe functional impairment (U = -3.233, p = .001) compared with GD individuals without ADHD. No group differences emerged in GD symptom severity. CONCLUSIONS: Findings indicate that GD individuals show high prevalence of ADHD and that individuals with both GD and ADHD appear to represent a more complex subpopulation with heightened depressive and anxiety symptoms and increased functional impairment. These results underscore that the presence of ADHD is frequent and appears to exert an important clinical impact on individuals with GD; therefore, ADHD should be routinely screened for in this population.

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9. Costa SD, Fraga C, Rodrigues N, Gonçalves C, Silva SP, Espada F, Soares AR, Martins C. Phenotypic Heterogeneity of 16p11.2 Microdeletion Syndrome: 5 Case Reports. J Child Neurol. 2026; 41(1): 94-9.

Introduction16p11.2 microdeletion syndrome is a rare genetic condition with wide clinical heterogeneity. Individuals may present a normal phenotype or neurodevelopmental pathology, often associated with nonspecific dysmorphology, epilepsy, cardiac anomalies and obesity, among other characteristics.Clinical CasesCase 1: Male, 11-year-old, with macrocephaly from 4 months, obesity from 2 years, and speech delay; currently diagnosed with intellectual developmental disorder. Case 2: Female, 13-year-old, referred at 4 years due to language delay; at 6 years, early puberty and obesity were identified; currently recognized as having intellectual developmental disorder and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Case 3: Male, 5-year-old, referred at 3 years for global developmental delay, mainly in language; family history of intellectual developmental disorder; currently has global developmental delay. Case 4: Male, 6-year-old, referred at 11 months for motor delay; at 18 months, language delay, motor coordination difficulties, and aggressiveness were noted; recently, he was diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. Case 5: Male, 14-year-old, with macrocephaly and expressive language delay at 2 years; oppositional behavior and ADHD diagnosed, with learning disabilities and overweight. None of the cases have epilepsy or cardiac pathology. All showed 16p11.2 microdeletion in array-CGH studies and received multidisciplinary follow-up.Discussion/Conclusion16p11.2 microdeletion syndrome shows significant clinical variability, with common neurodevelopmental involvement. Genetic testing via array-CGH helps establish the etiologic diagnosis, making it essential for individuals with global developmental delay / intellectual developmental disorder or autism spectrum disorder. Early diagnosis enables timely intervention and genetic counseling.

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10. Denis I, Côté L, Turcotte S, Foldes-Busque G. Parenting Practices in Families of Children With Comorbid ADHD and Anxiety Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Child Care Health Dev. 2026; 52(1): e70219.

BACKGROUND: Comorbid anxiety disorders affect up to 28% of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). While coercive parenting is often linked to ADHD and overprotectiveness to anxiety disorders (ADs), little is known about parenting practices in children with both disorders (ADHD+ADs). This systematic review and meta-analysis examined parenting practices in children aged 5-12 years with ADHD+ADs. METHODS: Studies were identified through PsycINFO (Ovid), Medline (Ovid), EMBASE, and Web of Science from inception date to January 23, 2025. Of the 1838 records screened, four studies were included in the review, and three were included in the meta-analysis. RESULTS: Compared to parents of children with ADHD alone, those of children with ADHD+ADs reported greater use of anxiety-related parenting practices (k = 3, g = 0.32, 95% CI = 0.11, 0.53, p = 0.002) and fewer positive parenting practices (k = 3, g = -0.35, 95% CI = -0.55, -0.14, p = 0.001). No significant differences were found in ADHD-related parenting practices (k = 2, g = 0.27, 95% CI = -0.16, 0.70, p = 0.26). CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that families of children with ADHD+ADs may be characterized by increased anxiety-related parenting practices and reduced positive parenting compared to families of children with ADHD alone. Further research is needed to inform the development of targeted interventions.

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11. Dwyer P, Williams ZJ, Lawson W, Rivera SM. A Trans-Diagnostic Investigation of Attention and Diverse Phenotypes of « Auditory Hyperreactivity » in Autism, ADHD, and the General Population. J Atten Disord. 2026; 30(1): 57-81.

OBJECTIVE: Experiences of « auditory hyper-reactivity » and decreased sound tolerance, which can be separated into phenotypes such as hyperacusis and misophonia, are prevalent in autism and ADHD and impact quality of life and wellbeing. Furthermore, atypical patterns of attention regulations-including hyper-focus and inattention-are common in both autism and ADHD. Prior research also suggests sensory hyper-reactivity can cause anxiety, and anxiety can be associated with hyper-vigilance. It is currently unclear whether hyper-focusing on stimuli, having one’s attention captured by them, or being hyper-vigilant toward them could lead to sensory hyper-reactivity. Therefore, this study investigates relationships among hyper-focus, inattention, hyper-vigilance, auditory hyper-reactivity, and anxiety. METHOD: Four hundred ninety-two adults (122 ADHD-only, 130 autistic-only, 141 autistic + ADHD, and 99 comparison) completed questionnaires indexing hyper-focus, inattention, and various forms of auditory hyper-reactivity; participants also completed a psychoacoustic measure by rating the pleasantness of misophonic trigger sounds. RESULT: Per questionnaires, auditory hyper-reactivity was markedly elevated in both autistic and ADHD participants relative to comparison participants (.46 ≤ Cliff’s δ ≤ .84), whereas differences between autism and ADHD alone were small (.05 ≤ |Cliff’s δ| ≤ .21) and not consistent in sensitivity analyses. Path analysis suggested hyper-vigilance, hyper-focus, and inattention were related to auditory hyper-reactivity, which was related to anxiety, which was related to hyper-vigilance, potentially reflecting a cyclic relationship. However, psychoacoustic misophonia was only modestly related to self-reported misophonia scores (.22 ≤ Spearman’s ρ ≤ .31), and contributed little to the auditory hyper-reactivity composite included in the path analysis. CONCLUSION: These findings generally support the idea that attention may be connected to many neurodivergent people’s auditory hyper-reactivity, but also emphasize the need for improved measurement of sensory experiences.

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12. Ertik O. Discovery of potential attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) drug molecules from natural compounds: In silico studies with Tanimoto similarity. J Mol Graph Model. 2026; 142: 109200.

Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurological disorder that prevents individuals from developing their potential and causes an inability to focus, especially in children, and the prevalence of ADHD in adults has been increasing. There is a very limited group of drugs for treatment of ADHD, the most important of which is methylphenidate. Therefore, the discovery of new drug molecules becomes very important because of limited drugs. In this study, methylphenidate molecule was compared with 790096 molecules by utilizing Tanimoto similarity of natural compounds and molecules were identified by second filtering according to blood-brain barrier penetration. Then, molecules were docked with dopamine transporter (DAT) and compounds with better binding scores than methylphenidate were identified and molecular dynamics simulation studies were done for the best pose and validated conformation. In addition, molecular docking and dynamic simulations were performed for monoamine oxidase A and B (MAO-A and MAO-B) in order to control the state of depression frequently encountered in ADHD individuals. The results suggest the compound 3706153 ((octahydro-1H-quinolizin-1-yl)methyl 2-(naphthalen-1-yl)acetate) has potentially inhibitory molecule for DAT, MAO-A and MAO-B and have a potential of the main structure in the development of alternative drug molecule for ADHD from the natural compounds.

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13. Escamilla Lerner J, de Castro-Manglano P, León Sanz P. Emilio Mira y López’s Perspectives on Understanding ADHD. J Atten Disord. 2026; 30(1): 3-7.

OBJECTIVE: The study aims to examine the contributions of Emilio Mira y López (1896-1964) to the early conceptualization and treatment of what is now known as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). It seeks to contextualize his ideas within broader historical, pedagogical, and psychiatric developments in Spain and internationally. METHOD: A historical-analytical approach was employed, reviewing Mira y López’s publications El niño que no aprende (The Child Who Does Not Learn, 1947), as well as related psychiatric and educational literature from the early 20th century. His work was analyzed alongside contributions from contemporaries and predecessors, with a focus on terminology, neurophysiological concepts, and early treatment strategies. RESULTS: Mira y López described the « unstable child » or « butterfly child » with symptoms that align closely with modern ADHD: impulsivity, distractibility, and lack of sustained attention. He proposed that these children suffer from an imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory brain functions, suggesting early therapeutic interventions including behavioral techniques and opotherapeutic (hormonal) medications. His research emphasized a medical and pedagogical approach to learning difficulties and prefigured ideas found in the emerging field of child psychopharmacology. CONCLUSION: Emilio Mira y López’s understanding of childhood instability reflected the influence of French and Anglo-American psychiatry and anticipated key elements of today’s ADHD frameworks. His physiological model of inhibition mirrors Charles Bradley’s « inhibition hypothesis, » which led to the use of stimulants for hyperactivity. Mira’s early proposals contributed to shaping a more comprehensive, interdisciplinary view of childhood mental health and learning difficulties in Spain and Latin America.

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14. Fan J, Wu S, Huang C, Xiao D, Tang F. Meta-analysis of the association between prenatal antibiotic exposure and risk of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Affect Disord. 2026; 392: 120168.

BACKGROUND: Studies examining the association between maternal antibiotic use during pregnancy and the risk of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have yielded inconsistent results. This meta-analysis synthesizes available evidence to establish a more comprehensive understanding of this association. METHODS: Observational studies published through October 2, 2024, were systematically searched from Cochrane Library, EMBASE, Web of Science, and PubMed databases. The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale was used to assess the quality of the included studies, and statistical analyses were performed using Stata version 15.0. RESULTS: Nine studies encompassing 6,180,434 participants were included. Prenatal antibiotic exposure was associated with an increased risk of childhood ADHD (HR = 1.15; 95 % CI = 1.09-1.22, P < 0.0001; OR = 1.28; 95 % CI = 1.21-1.35, P < 0.001). Both mid-pregnancy (HR = 1.11; 95 % CI = 1.02-1.22, P = 0.282) and late-pregnancy (HR = 1.07; 95 % CI = 1.02-1.12, P = 0.521) antibiotic exposure was associated with an increased risk of ADHD. Repeated antibiotic exposures was associated with an increased risk further (twice: HR = 1.13; 95 % CI = 1.10-1.16, P = 0.856; ≥3 times: HR = 1.21; 95 % CI = 1.17-1.24, P = 0.166). CONCLUSION: This analysis identified a link between maternal antibiotic use during pregnancy and an increased risk of childhood ADHD. Large-scale, multicenter, well-designed prospective studies are needed to confirm these findings and adjust for potential confounders in evaluating the relationship between prenatal antibiotic exposure and childhood ADHD.

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15. Ging-Jehli NR, Pine DS. From symptom-based heterogeneity to mechanism-based profiling in youth ADHD: the promise of computational psychiatry. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2026; 51(1): 234-43.

Mental health conditions such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and mood disorders show marked symptom heterogeneity, complicating diagnosis and treatment. Computational psychiatry offers a way forward by using mathematical models, such as sequential sampling models, applied to trial-by-trial behavior in well-defined neurocognitive tasks, to infer latent mechanisms underlying behavior. In ADHD, this approach has revealed consistent alterations in information integration (reduced drift rates) in attention-demanding tasks and also indicates that combinations of different model parameters (increased drift rate and longer nondecision time) distinguish the different neurocomputational mechanisms that underlie symptom dimensions. Early work in ADHD also suggests that drift rate predicts illness trajectories and provides insights into treatment response. Yet current applications remain preliminary, limited by task constraints, assumptions in model specification, and questions of reliability and generalizability of the derived parameters. Integrating mechanistic modeling with naturalistic tasks, physiological measures, and longitudinal designs may help to disentangle context-specific from generalizable processes. Ultimately, shifting from symptom descriptions to mechanistic models of belief and behavioral adaptation in dynamic environments may pave the way for next-generation assessments in ADHD, and help to support interventions that are ecologically valid, developmentally informed, and adaptive to patients’ changing needs across time and context.

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16. Golimstok A, Berrios W. Adult ADHD as a risk factor for dementia: integrating longitudinal evidence, mechanistic insights, and the role of stimulant treatment. Front Dement. 2025; 4: 1735357.

Adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is increasingly recognized as a persistent neurodevelopmental condition with long-term implications for cognitive aging and dementia risk. Epidemiological and longitudinal studies indicate that adults with ADHD have a higher incidence of non-amnestic dementia subtypes, including Lewy body disease, and may be particularly susceptible to age-related cognitive decline. Convergent mechanistic evidence implicates dopaminergic dysregulation, possible Wnt/mTOR pathway alterations, oxidative stress, and chronic neuroinflammation as shared biological pathways linking ADHD to neurodegeneration. Psychiatric comorbidities, lifestyle factors, and reduced cognitive reserve may further amplify vulnerability, decreasing the brain’s resilience to neuropathological insults. Preliminary data suggest that stimulant treatments, such as methylphenidate and amphetamine derivatives, may attenuate dementia risk by normalizing dopaminergic tone, enhancing cortical plasticity, and reducing oxidative stress, although randomized trials are needed to confirm these protective effects. Emerging biomarker and genetic studies, including polygenic ADHD risk scores, α-synuclein, amyloid/tau, and GBA mutations, offer opportunities for early detection, risk stratification, and mechanistic insights. Integrating epidemiological, neuroimaging, molecular, and pharmacological data could guide targeted preventive interventions, highlighting ADHD as a developmental and potentially modifiable risk factor for late-life neurodegenerative disorders.

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17. He H, Zhang L, Du W, Luo Q, Ren T, Li F. The Mediating Role of Sleep Problems in the Association Between Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Self-Injurious Thoughts and Behaviors in Children Aged 9-12 in the United States. J Adolesc Health. 2026; 78(1): 95-103.

PURPOSE: Given the association of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with self-injurious thoughts and behaviors (SITBs) among adolescents/adults, and the high prevalence of SITBs in preadolescents, this study aims to identify modifiable preadolescent factors by investigating the sleep problems’ mediating role. METHODS: Utilizing data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study, ADHD diagnosis at baseline (ages 9-11) and SITBs at 2-year follow-up were assessed using the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia. Sleep problems were measured with the Sleep Disturbance Scale for Children at baseline, 1-year, and 2-year follow-up. Logistic regression was used to examine the associations between ADHD and SITBs. Latent profile analysis identified sleep profiles based on six dimensions of the Sleep Disturbance Scale for Children. Mediation models assessed the mediating role of sleep problems. RESULTS: Among the 8,328 youth included, 7.5% had parent-reported ADHD. These individuals exhibited higher odds of SITBs (adjusted odds ratio = 2.72 [95% confidence interval, 2.27-3.25]F). Sleep problems accounted for 34.5% of the association with SITBs among youth with ADHD. Three sleep profiles were identified, with one profile characterized by sleep initiation/maintenance difficulties and excessive somnolence mediating 22.6% of the association with SITBs. In youth with ADHD, temporal patterns of time-limited, intermittent, and chronic sleep disturbance significantly mediated 12.9%, 30.6%, and 48.0% of the association with SITBs, respectively. DISCUSSION: Sleep problems significantly mediated the relationship between ADHD and SITBs in preadolescents. Difficulties in sleep initiation/maintenance and excessive somnolence made substantial contributions to the mediating effect. The mediating effect strengthened with the prolonged persistence of sleep disturbances.

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18. Helmer A, Delore E, Bart O. Emotional and Motor Improvements in Children With ADHD Following Equine-Assisted Occupational Therapy. OTJR (Thorofare N J). 2026; 46(1): 23-32.

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity, as children may present developmental and chronic impairments in cognitive-emotional and sensory-motor aspects. This study examined the changes in self-efficacy, muscle tone, and mood following a single session of Equine-Assisted Occupational Therapy (EAOT) within Attention Skills Therapy (ASTride) intervention, designed to improve emotional and cognitive functions. Notably, 31 children diagnosed with ADHD aged 6-12 (mean age 10.06) years. A preliminary study of pre- and post-single 45-min session was performed, using the New General Self-efficacy Scale (NGSE), the Moos Scale Questionnaire (MSQ), and the prone extension test. A significant improvement in self-efficacy and in positive mood, and a decrease in negative mood were found, along with a significant improvement in core muscles. This study provides preliminary evidence supporting the effectiveness of EAOT for children with ADHD regarding emotional and sensory-motor (vestibular) functions. Improving Emotional and Motor Skills in Children with ADHD through Equine-Assisted Occupational TherapyChildren with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often struggle with emotional and motor challenges, including difficulties with regulating their mood and maintaining motor control. Traditional treatments such as medication and therapy focus on cognitive and emotional skills, but there is increasing interest in complementary interventions that can address both physical and emotional aspects simultaneously. One such approach is Equine-Assisted Occupational Therapy (EAOT), which involves working with horses to promote emotional regulation, motor coordination, and overall well-being. This study explores the effects of a single session of EAOT, using the ASTride protocol, on children with ADHD. The ASTride intervention combines sensory, cognitive, and emotional elements, using horse care, riding exercises, and reflective activities to improve attention, mood, and self-regulation. The session involves structured activities, such as preparing the horse, riding, and practicing motor skills, all while being guided by an occupational therapist and a certified riding instructor. Results showed that after just one session, children demonstrated significant improvements in mood, including increased feelings of calm, self-efficacy, and control. They also showed enhanced motor skills, as reflected in their ability to maintain posture and balance during the riding exercises. These improvements suggest that EAOT could be a valuable addition to traditional ADHD treatments, offering both emotional and motor benefits. Although the study was preliminary and involved a small number of participants, it highlights the potential of EAOT as a promising intervention for children with ADHD. Future research is needed to confirm these findings and explore the long-term effects of this approach. eng.

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19. Her YN, Wang YH, Ma DY, Chang C, Wan FJ, Tzeng NS. Psychiatric evaluations for adolescent offenders with delinquency in Taiwan. Int J Law Psychiatry. 2026; 104: 102156.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study is to investigate the psychiatric evaluations for juvenile offenders. METHODS: A total of 166 juvenile offenders were enrolled in this study. After diagnostic psychiatric interviews for 166 juvenile offenders, three groups of academic achievement (normal, academically challenged, and those suspended/dropouts from school). Different offenses, including those were against people, property, related to illicit drugs, or related to sex and delinquency and mental illness were also recorded. The relationship among the mental illness, types of offenses, and academic achievement was analyzed. RESULTS: In this study, 89.76 % of juvenile offenders reported educational achievement problems and 89.76 % of them had psychiatric disorders. The educational achievement with regard to the types of offenses (p < 0.001) or specific mental illness (p < 0.001). Juvenile offenders who were lagged behind in school performance showed more offenses against property (56.48 %), and more ADHD and conduct disorder (ADHD only: 36.11 %. ADHD with conduct: 12.04 %. ADHD with mood disorder: 11.11 %. Conduct disorder: 14.81 %). Those who dropped out of school showed more offenses against people and more mood disorder (mood disorder only: 24.39 %. Mood disorder with ADHD: 24.39 %). For those without academic challenges, the most common offenses were related to sex. CONCLUSIONS: These findings revealed that often times juvenile offenses are related to psychiatric disorders and school problems.

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20. Johnson S, Lim E, Jacoby P, Faraone SV, Su BM, Solmi M, Forrest B, Furfaro B, von Klier K, Downs J, Chen W. Prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder/hyperkinetic disorder of pediatric and adult populations in clinical settings: a systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression. Mol Psychiatry. 2026; 31(1): 576-86.

BACKGROUND: Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)/Hyperkinetic Disorder (HD) is linked to increased risks of morbidity, comorbidity and mortality, with higher prevalence in clinical populations. The differential prevalence of ADHD/HD across adult and pediatric clinical populations, influenced by factors such as time trends, sex, age, geographic regions, and comorbidities, has not been systematically assessed. METHODS: MEDLINE, CINAHL, Embase and PsycINFO databases were searched from inception to 1st August 2023 for eligible full-text papers published in English, and reviewing reference lists of identified studies and review papers. Studies reporting ADHD/HD prevalence in adult and pediatric clinical populations were included. Meta-regression evaluated the effects of geographic region, year of publication and sample size. RESULTS: From 30,740 citations, we reviewed 521 full-text articles, yielding 311 studies for inclusion (including 653,558 pediatric and 43,311 adult participants). Overall, worldwide pooled prevalence of ADHD/HD in clinical settings for pediatrics was 32.4% (95% CI 31-34%), and in adults 21.4% (95% CI 20-23%). Prevalence was higher in outpatient settings than inpatient settings. Prevalence based on rating scales was higher than studies using diagnostic interviews or clinical record review. Prevalence varied significantly across subspecialist settings for children and adults. No significant time trend was detected between 1981-2023. Pediatric prevalence appears influenced by geographic region but not year of publication or sample size. For adults, larger sample sizes were associated with lower prevalence estimates. CONCLUSIONS: ADHD/HD prevalence in clinical populations is 8-9-fold higher than community estimates. With these patients at risk for many adverse outcomes, our findings underscore the critical importance of resource allocation for screening, diagnosing and treatment.

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21. Kaldoja ML, Nadendla KD, Ploetz D, Caldwell CT, Suskauer SJ, Svingos A, Busch TA, Slomine BS. Exploring sex differences in pediatric mild traumatic brain injury: clinical characteristics and recovery patterns of pediatric mTBI patients with non-credible effort. Child Neuropsychol. 2026; 32(1): 39-55.

This study investigates sex differences in demographic and injury-related characteristics, along with recovery patterns, in children with mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) who failed at least one Performance Validity Test (PVT). A retrospective analysis of 186 patients (8-18 years old; 65.1% females) from a specialty concussion clinic with non-credible effort on PVTs was conducted. Data on demographics, injury-related characteristics, symptoms, as well as recovery patterns, were analyzed. There were significant sex differences in age at injury, pre-injury academic status, ADHD prevalence, physical activity levels, and post-injury emotional symptoms. Girls exhibited longer recovery times, had more clinical visits, and received different provider recommendations. This study revealed significant sex differences between boys and girls with mTBI and non-credible effort on PVTs. These findings underscore the need for sex-informed approaches in pediatric mTBI management and highlight areas for future research.

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22. Kaplan Kılıç B, Bumin G, Öğütlü H, Türkçapar MH. Comprehensive Effects of Occupational Therapy Using Ayres Sensory Integration® in Children With ADHD: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Am J Occup Ther. 2026; 80(1).

IMPORTANCE: Limited information exists on the effects of occupational therapy based on the principles of Ayres Sensory Integration® (OT-ASI) in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Therefore, there is a need for a detailed examination of its effects in areas such as sensorimotor functions, attention, executive functions, emotional regulation, and participation. OBJECTIVE: To perform a comprehensive evaluation of the effects of OT-ASI in children with ADHD. DESIGN: Randomized controlled study, including pretest-posttest and single-blind designs. SETTING: Individual occupational therapy clinic. PARTICIPANTS: Ninety-four children (ages 6-8 yr) with ADHD (intervention group, n = 47; control group, n = 47). INTERVENTION: The intervention group received OT-ASI (three sessions per week for 10 wk). The control group was placed on a 10-wk waiting list. OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: The Sensory Integration and Praxis Test; Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition, Brief Form; and goal attainment scaling were used as primary outcome measures. The Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory; Stroop Color and Shape Matching Test, TBAG Form; Emotion Regulation Checklist; and Participation and Environment Measure for Children and Youth were used as secondary outcome measures. RESULTS: Postintervention, the intervention group showed a statistically and clinically significant improvement in all outcome measure results (p < .001, η2 > .25). The control group did not show a statistically significant improvement (p > .05). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: OT-ASI can improve sensorimotor, attention, and executive functions; emotional regulation; and participation in children with ADHD. Therefore, it is an evidence-based occupational therapy approach that occupational therapists may prefer in working with children with ADHD. Plain-Language Summary: This study was conducted to comprehensively evaluate the effects of occupational therapy using Ayres Sensory Integration® (OT-ASI) in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In children with ADHD, OT-ASI improved sensorimotor skills such as praxis, balance, and coordination; cognitive skills such as attention and problem-solving; emotional skills such as coping with negative emotions and impulse control; and participation skills such as independence in home, school, and community activities. This study shows that OT-ASI is an evidence-based occupational therapy approach that can be applied to children with ADHD. Therefore, OT-ASI is recommended as one of the intervention approaches that occupational therapists may prefer in working with children with ADHD.

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23. Kerri A, Heude B, Zoumenou R, Boivin MJ, Cot M, Massougbodji A, Bodeau-Livinec F. Maternal anthropometric measurements in pregnancy and child neurocognitive and behavioral development at 1 and 6 years of age: A cohort study in Benin, Sub-Saharan Africa. Nutrition. 2026; 141: 112914.

BACKGROUND: Low and high body mass index (BMI) are hypothesized to impact offspring neurodevelopment, but less is known in sub-Saharan Africa where undernutrition is highly prevalent. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate the association between maternal anthropometric measurements during pregnancy and neurocognitive and behavioral development in children at age 1 and 6 years, in a mother-child cohort from Benin. METHODS: This prospective cohort study included surviving singletons born to pregnant women in Allada, Benin. Cognitive and motor functions of 747 and 574 children were assessed at 1 and 6 years of age, respectively, in addition to behavioral difficulties and attention deficit and hyperactivity disorders. Statistical analysis using multiple linear regression models tested main associations, potential mediating factors were additionally adjusted for. RESULTS: Total of 17%, 72.5%, 7.7% and 2.5% of women were estimated to be underweight, normal weight, overweight and obese before pregnancy, respectively. Women who were underweight had a higher median weight gain (240 [170-300]) over the course of pregnancy, compared to normal BMI women (210 [160-260]), and overweight/obese women (150 [110-240]). After exclusion of obese women, estimated prepregnancy BMI was significantly associated with higher motor scores (0.26, 95% CI 0.002-0.53) and cognitive scores (0.37, 95% CI 0.02-0.72) after adjustment for confounding factors. There was no association between gestational weight gain and offspring neurodevelopment at 1 and 6 years of age. There was no association between maternal BMI and gestational weight gain and behavior and attention deficit and hyperactivity disorders at 6 years of age. CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests that low BMI before pregnancy may impair short- and long-term neurocognition in children in the Beninese context. Undernutrition in childhood has great impact and efforts to adequate prevention for both child and maternal undernutrition should be enforced in low- and middle-income countries.

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24. Kim Y, Schneider DW, Keehn B. An Investigation of Attentional Networks, the Locus Coeruleus – Norepinephrine System, and Autism and ADHD Traits. J Atten Disord. 2026; 30(1): 82-98.

PURPOSE: Attention is proposed to consist of three discrete neurofunctional networks, though evidence suggests that two of these – the alerting and cognitive control networks – are interdependent. The neural mechanism(s) underlying this interdependence have not been identified; however, the locus coeruleus – norepinephrine (LC-NE) system may provide a potential explanation for this interaction. Further, both alerting-cognitive control interdependence and LC-NE activity may be altered in autistic individuals, and thus may provide a unique window into the relationship between the LC-NE system and network interdependence. The objective of the current study was to utilize electrophysiological and pupillary indices of LC-NE activity to examine the associations between attentional network interdependence, LC-NE activity, and autism and ADHD traits. METHODS: A total of 77 neurotypical undergraduate students completed two tasks: (1) a resting eye-tracking task to measure pupil diameter (tonic LC activity), and (2) a cued-flanker task to measure cue-related pupil diameter response (cue PDR; phasic LC activity) and attentional network interdependence using behavioral, electrophysiological, and pupillometric indices. Autistic and ADHD traits were measured by self-reported questionnaires. RESULTS: Consistent with prior reports, our behavioral and electrophysiological results support network interdependence. Phasic LC activity was positively related to alerting-cognitive control interdependence. Finally, the tonic and phasic LC-NE indices were linked to distinct ADHD subscales but not to autistic traits. CONCLUSION: These findings expand our understanding of neurofunctional mechanism associated with alerting-cognitive control interdependence and demonstrate that LC-NE activation may be associated with ADHD rather than with autistic traits.

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25. Kothari PM, Singer DP. Exploring the Theoretical Potential of Benzphetamine in the Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Cureus. 2025; 17(12): e100363.

Benzphetamine HCl (Didrex) is a Schedule III amphetamine indicated for the treatment of obesity. Amphetamine and methylphenidate are CNS stimulants regarded as the most effective treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Currently, both classes comprise the nationwide shortage of stimulants used to treat ADHD. Benzphetamine is a prodrug yielding dextroamphetamine (Zenzedi) and dextromethamphetamine (formerly Desoxyn). Both metabolites hold FDA approval to treat ADHD, suggesting their potential to aid in the shortage. Nonetheless, the lack of data on the compound limits its hypothetical applicability, thus prompting a theoretical review. Prior studies found dextroamphetamine to be more potent than benzphetamine and suggested the behavior of the compounds to differ; despite this, the absence of data in ADHD subjects and the limited data on obese subjects significantly limited our investigation. While benzphetamine appears mechanistically promising, the paucity of literature prevented us from drawing a theoretical claim. This editorial examined the theoretical pharmacological rationale for benzphetamine based on known mechanisms; it does not present new clinical data, efficacy claims, or treatment recommendations.

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26. Kteish R, Ednick M, Kier C. Pediatric Insomnia. Pediatr Rev. 2026; 47(1): 15-24.

Pediatric insomnia is a common condition that can significantly impact a patient’s well-being. It typically involves difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or both. The prevalence of insomnia is notably higher among children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Two commonly recognized subtypes of pediatric insomnia are behavioral insomnia and psychophysiological insomnia. Because clinical symptoms and physical examination findings are often subtle, pediatricians should be familiar with the diagnosis and management of insomnia. Pediatricians should also consider and rule out underlying disorders such as sleep apnea, anxiety, or other medical conditions that may contribute to or mimic insomnia. Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) is currently regarded as the most effective treatment. While melatonin has shown benefits in children with autism or ADHD, additional research is needed to evaluate the efficacy of other pharmacologic options. Timely intervention is crucial, as pediatric insomnia can become chronic and negatively affect mental health and overall quality of life.

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27. Kuznetsova E, Tammi T, Postnova N, Palomäki J, Cowley BU. Mechanisms of Learning in Adults With ADHD During an Ecologically-Valid Visual Discrimination Task. J Atten Disord. 2026; 30(1): 38-56.

OBJECTIVE: Learning unfolds in distinct stages-acquisition, consolidation, and maintenance-shaped by cognitive mechanisms such as saliency processing, interference control, and sustained attention. ADHD in adults is associated with deficits in these cognitive processes, which in turn might lead to learning difficulties. METHOD: Using a novel protocol that incorporates a visual attention task with gestalt-image targets and primer distractors, we investigated these cognitive mechanisms across different stages of learning in 53 adults diagnosed with ADHD and 18 neurotypical Controls. RESULTS: Our findings reveal that adults with ADHD exhibit reduced neural activations in the occipital and parietal areas, indicating diminished bottom-up visual processing and challenges in handling distractions. Nevertheless, individuals with ADHD demonstrate increased frontal activity in the late stages of visual processing, suggesting compensatory mechanisms employed by the group. Behaviorally, both groups achieve comparable performance, though ADHD participants do so at the expense of greater variability and attentional lapses. Furthermore, while Controls reach the plateau already after the acquisition phase, the ADHD group is gradually improving its performance throughout the experiment. CONCLUSION: These findings demonstrate that adults with ADHD can acquire and retain new skills but do so through different-and usually more effortful-pathways. By mapping neural and behavioral dynamics onto learning stages, this study offers a more nuanced framework for learning in ADHD and supports the development of phase-specific intervention strategies.

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28. Li D, Luo X, Dang C, Kong Y, Li Y, Zhu Y, Huang J, Wang Y, Guo J, Sun L, Song Y. Impaired sensory-motor integration in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder during visual search. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2026; 67(1): 17-26.

OBJECTIVE: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder in school-age children. Abnormal sensory-motor integration, such as concurrent visuomotor selection, is a prominent feature of ADHD. However, underlying pathophysiological substrates of impaired sensory-motor integration in childhood ADHD remain unclear. Identifying neural markers of cognitive impairment in children with ADHD is vital for the early assisted diagnosis and the selection of intervention targets. METHODS: We collected electroencephalography (EEG) signals from 70 children with ADHD and 65 matched typically developing (TD) children while performing a visual search task. Oscillation-based multivariate pattern decoding was used to investigate visuomotor coordination during spatial attention. RESULTS: Compared with TD children, children with ADHD showed impairments in accuracy, response time, and response time variability. Multivariate machine learning revealed that the ADHD group showed deficits in alpha (visual-related) and beta (motor-related) power-based decoding accuracy, indicating the impaired sensory orienting and motor preparation. Importantly, children with ADHD exhibited a delay between alpha and beta decoding, suggesting a deficit of concurrent visuomotor coordination. However, this visuomotor asynchrony was absent in TD children. Furthermore, the degree of visuomotor asynchrony between alpha and beta decoding was predictive of behavioral impairments and symptom severity in children with ADHD. CONCLUSIONS: These observations reveal that impaired concurrent visuomotor coordination might be a potential neural marker of impaired sensory-motor integration in children with ADHD, further advancing the understanding of cognitive deficits, and providing potential research directions for the early diagnosis and optimization of intervention in neurodevelopmental disorders.

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29. Liang X, Qiu H, Haegele JA, Li X, Li M, Li J, Li SX. Associations between accelerometer-measured physical activity and sleep duration and health indicators in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Exerc Sci Fit. 2026; 24(1): 200429.

OBJECTIVE: This systematic review and meta-analysis synthesized available studies to explore relationships between accelerometer-measured physical activity (PA) levels or sleep duration and health-related outcomes in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). METHODS: Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analyses guidelines, the six databases APA PsychInfo, CINAHL Ultimate, Embase, MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus with Full Text and Web of Science were searched from inception through July 2024. The correlation coefficient (r) was employed to determine the effect size in the meta-analysis. A random-effects model was utilised to estimate the potentially heterogeneously distributed effect sizes with a 95 % confidence interval (CI) between groups. Statistical heterogeneity was assessed using I (2) , with a p-value derived from Q statistics. RESULTS: Thirteen eligible studies were included, involving 738 children and adolescents with ADHD (71.1 % boys). The health indicators assessed were executive functions (EFs), motor development, psychological health, and core ADHD symptoms. We found that higher PA levels (i.e., moderate-to-vigorous physical activity [MVPA]) (k = 9, r = 0.36, 95 %CI 0.22 to 0.49) with medium heterogeneity (Q = 13.006, I (2) = 38 %, p = 0.112), and longer sleep duration (k = 6, r = 0.20, 95 %CI 0.06 to 0.35) with medium heterogeneity (Q = 7.495, I (2) = 33 %, p = 0.186), were significantly correlated with better overall EFs. Additionally, MVPA was negatively associated with psychopathology (k = 5, r = -0.19, 95 %CI -0.35 to -0.03) with medium heterogeneity (Q = 8.058, I (2) = 50 %, p = 0.089) in children and adolescents with ADHD. CONCLUSION: The findings provide support for significant relationships between PA levels (i.e., MVPA) and sleep duration with overall EFs and MVPA with psychopathology in children and adolescents with ADHD. It is recommended that future studies conduct moderation analyses to examine factors that affect the generalisability of the findings, such as age, sex, and ADHD subtypes. However, these analyses could not be conducted in the current meta-analysis due to the limited number of included studies.

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30. Montiel V, Navarrete V, González-Pérez AM, Vázquez de Alba C, Díaz-Sánchez R, Szenczi P, Rosetti M, Ulloa RE, Bánszegi O. Perception of Visual Illusions in Children and Teenagers With ADHD. J Atten Disord. 2026; 30(1): 116-30.

OBJECTIVE: Susceptibility to visual illusions is a consequence of the adaptation of the visual system, however, their perception or lack of it reflects differences in more general, global cognitive processes. Few studies have focussed on the susceptibility of individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), even though visual impairment and percept differences have been thoroughly documented. METHOD: The present study evaluated 75 children (ages 6.09-12.99 years, 72% male) and 37 teenagers (ages 13-16.95 years, 62% male) with ADHD, and a sex-and-age matched sample of typically developing peers. They were tested with 103 pairs of illusory and control images spanning five illusion types. RESULTS: We found increased susceptibility to the Müller-Lyer and Kanizsa Subjective Contour and decreased susceptibility to the Ebbinghaus illusion among children with ADHD when compared to typically developing controls. No differences were found for susceptibility to the Simultaneous Contrast and Moving Snake illusions. As for reaction times, we did not find differences between participants with ADHD and their control peers when judging illusions; however, in general participants give answers faster in the illusory trials than in control trials with the same magnitude of difficulties which also confirm the susceptibility of the illusions. CONCLUSION: Our findings point to small but important perceptual alterations, such as slightly reduced or delayed top-down or global processing ability in children with ADHD. Further research can focus on how these alterations may be useful to detect developmental alterations and understand perceptual difficulties in children with neuropathology.

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31. Nigg JT. The Evolving ADHD Phenotype in the Externalizing Context. Am J Psychiatry. 2026; 183(1): 18-30.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a developmental precursor for future conduct and other externalizing problems. Despite its familiarity, research in the past decade suggests that refining the ADHD phenotype will yield dividends for clinical prediction and treatment specification as well as mechanistic discovery and theory. ADHD is a useful category, yet it comprises multiple constitutive traits requiring further specification. The field is now poised to shift to a useful integration of novel dimensional traits into a refined ADHD phenotype. This shift will need to recognize the importance of both the established ADHD symptom dimensions and other trait dimensions to create new presentations, types, or specifiers in the nosology. Clinical issues include the role of sluggish, disengaged cognitive style of inattention with hypoactivity. Dispositional traits related to emotional dysregulation will be key as well; these include negative affect and irritability (anger dysregulation). In the cognitive sphere, along with ongoing work on executive functions and reward discounting, new insights related to cognitive information gain or neural gain (a mechanism by which relevant neural connections strengthen during rapid information uptake and decision making) may explain other cognitive findings and relate to dispositional traits and clinical features. Due to its early gateway role, clinical prediction algorithms to evaluate course of ADHD and advisability of intervention will be valuable. A neurodevelopmental, early origins perspective, including early developmental programming in the prenatal period, is increasingly informing etiological understanding of ADHD. Nonclinical trait measures are seen as early precursors of ADHD, and ADHD is then a precursor of more serious externalizing and other complications later. This view opens new opportunities for risk detection and prevention. Clinical prediction algorithms should benefit from inclusion of low-cost, readily deployable trait measures discussed here, including selected temperament and cognition measures, which appear to enhance predictive power.

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32. Nishida N, Murayama K, Tomiyama H, Kato K, Matsuo A, Mingi K, Sashikata K, Matsukuma K, Kawahito M, Tsunoda K, Kamio T, Shuto A, Nakao T. Differences in symptom severity in hoarding disorder between those with and without attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. J Psychiatr Res. 2026; 192: 433-8.

Hoarding disorder (HD) is associated with symptoms of inattention. Previous studies relied on self-report assessments, which pose limitations in diagnosis; however no study has investigated the severity of hoarding in patients with and without comorbid attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) using structured diagnostic interviews. A total of 68 patients met the diagnostic criteria for HD, including 20 (29 %) with comorbid ADHD (20/68). This study aimed to compare the severity of hoarding symptoms in HD patients diagnosed with and without ADHD using a structured interview. The participants with HD were divided into HD + ADHD and HD without ADHD (HD-noADHD) groups, diagnosed using the Conners’ Adult ADHD Diagnostic Interview for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and Structured Clinical Interview for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. The severity of the hoarding symptoms was compared between the two groups using saving inventory-revised (SI-R), hoarding rating scale-self report(HRS-SR) and clutter image rating (CI-R). No significant differences were found between HD + ADHD and HD-noADHD groups in SI-R (p = 0.329), HRS-SR (p = 0.492) and CI-R (p = 0.589). These results suggest that diagnosis of ADHD was not related to HD severity.

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33. Nodaras G, Mavrea K, Efthymiou V, Papoutsaki K, Geronikolou S, Bacopoulou F. Electronic Media Use and Symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Greek Adolescents. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2026; 1487: 253-61.

Electronic media such as mobile phones, social media, computers, televisions, and video games are dominant in adolescents’ lives. There is a growing concern that rising rates of electronic media use may be related to behavioral and emotional problems. The aim of the present study was to examine associations of adolescents’ electronic media use with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms. Study participants were 99 adolescents (39 males, 60 females), 12-18 years old, as well as 93 parents (12 fathers and 81 mothers). Internet addiction was evaluated by the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) and behavioral/emotional problems by the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment. Parents reported on their adolescent’s attention and hyperactivity problems on the ADHD Rating Scale-5. Electronic media used by the adolescents were computer (40.4%), tablet (44.4%), PlayStation (40.4%), Facebook (43.4%), whereas 72.7% had an account on social networks. They watched TV from 0 to over 4 h every day; specifically, 51.5% from 0 to 2 h, while only 1% over 4 h. Most of them (78.8%) used internet daily, 28.3% used internet about 6-10 h, and 24.2% used it over 20 h to watch videos on YouTube (20,2%), searched for school information (14,1%), connected with social media (13.1), played games (12.1%), looked for information on products and services (12.1%), etc. Eighty respondents (80.8%) were average internet users (IAT < 40), 19 (19.2%) had possible addiction (IAT 40-69), while no one (0%) had severe addiction (IAT ≥ 70). The Internet Αddiction scale was found to have statistically significant correlations with many of the subscales of the Achenbach questionnaire and the attention-deficit subscale of the ADHD questionnaire.Statistically significant positive correlations were found between possible internet addiction with rule-breaking behavior, problems like thought, externalization, behavioral, obsessive-compulsive behavior, and post-traumatic stress. Results suggest that misuse of electronic media may be related to ADHD traits among Greek adolescents. As rates of electronic media use among teenagers are increasing, these findings should be taken into account to protect the social, cognitive, and psychological health of adolescents. Effective interventions are needed to target specific types of electronic media use in adolescence.

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34. O’Brien M, Kini-Seery C, Kelly C, Kilbride K, Wrigley M, Nearchou F, Bramham J. « I Felt Like a Burden »: An Exploration Into the Experience of Romantic Relationships for People With ADHD. J Marital Fam Ther. 2026; 52(1): e70097.

Romantic relationships can have additional complexities for individuals with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The present study employed Reflexive Thematic Analysis (RTA) to explore what challenges adults with ADHD have experienced in their romantic relationships. Adults with ADHD (N = 355) answered an open-ended survey question asking if and how their ADHD had negatively impacted their romantic relationships. RTA resulted in four overarching themes and seven subthemes. Too Much and Never Enough: The Emotional Rollercoaster of Rejection Sensitivity and The Struggle for Stability: ADHD’s Battle Between Passion and Distraction, encapsulated the relational challenges individuals with ADHD face associated with their ADHD traits. Between Partner and Caregiver: The Emotional and Practical Strain in ADHD Relationships highlighted the sometimes-unbalanced dynamic in relationships. From Chaos to Clarity: The Role of Self-Understanding in Love explored the detriments of lacking self-insight and the transformative impact of self-awareness. Findings underscore the complicated interplay between ADHD traits, self-perception, and romantic relationships.

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35. O’Nions E, Stott J. Life expectancy and years of life lost for adults with diagnosed ADHD in the UK: matched cohort study: commentary, O’Nions et al. Br J Psychiatry. 2026; 228(1): 85.

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36. Orban SA, Blessing JS, Sandone MK, Conness B, Santer J. Why Are Individuals With ADHD More Prone to Boredom? Examining Attention Control and Working Memory as Mediators of Boredom in Young Adults With ADHD Traits. J Atten Disord. 2026; 30(1): 8-22.

OBJECTIVE: Proneness to boredom has been reported in ADHD populations; however, no study to date has examined potential mediators of ADHD-related boredom. The current study investigated whether individuals with ADHD traits exhibit higher levels of boredom propensity relative to their peers without ADHD traits and explore if attention control and working memory mediate the relationship between ADHD and proneness to boredom. METHOD: Young adults (M(age) = 19.1, SD = 1.3) with (n = 31) and without (n = 57) ADHD traits completed self-report measures (i.e., boredom proneness, current ADHD symptoms, and childhood indicators of ADHD) and six counterbalanced performance-based cognitive measures (i.e., three attention control and three working memory tasks). RESULTS: Young adults with ADHD traits exhibited large magnitude effect size differences in proneness to boredom relative to their peers without ADHD traits (d = 2.09). In addition, proneness to boredom and ADHD trait group status were related to worse performance on attention control and working memory factors. Both attention control and working memory factors partially mediated the relation between ADHD and boredom, accounting for 5.8% and 6.4% of the variance in ADHD-related boredom, respectively. CONCLUSION: Executive attention processes related to difficulty controlling attention and using working memory may provide a partial explanation for why individuals with ADHD traits experience boredom.

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37. Pardo-Palenzuela N, Onandia-Hinchado I, Diaz-Orueta U. Cognitive Profile of ADHD in Older Adults: A Systematic Review. J Atten Disord. 2026; 30(1): 152-62.

OBJECTIVES: ADHD is now recognized as a common condition in adulthood, but the evidence supporting a separate characterization of a cognitive profile for ADHD in older adults is scarce. Consequently, the goal of the current study was to conduct a systematic review that helps clarify the cognitive characteristics of ADHD in older individuals. METHOD: We conducted a systematic review with narrative synthesis, considering studies on older adults with ADHD and research on cognitive domains involved in adults 50 years old and older with a confirmed diagnosis of ADHD, in three electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase). Ten studies (3 longitudinal and 7 cross-sectional) with clearly separated cognitive data for older adults with ADHD were included in this review. RESULTS: Results showed an overall worse performance in attention and episodic memory for older adults with ADHD compared to their younger counterparts and older healthy controls. Evidence concerning executive functions was mixed, with some studies showing a worse performance in working memory compared to older healthy controls, but with other studies showing a similar or even better performance than younger adults with ADHD. CONCLUSIONS: A cognitive characterization of ADHD in older adults requires further research to clarify whether it can be considered a separate entity and how to establish a differential diagnosis with other age-related conditions. Moreover, there is a need for internationally agreed common neuropsychological assessment protocols that set boundaries between younger and older adults with ADHD.

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38. Patel H, Tillman R, Vogel A, Luby J. Association of pediatric bipolar disorder and substance use disorder in adulthood in a prospective cohort. J Affect Disord. 2026; 392: 120108.

BACKGROUND: Patients with pediatric bipolar disorder (PBD) have high risk of adolescent substance use disorders (SUD). Less is known about the risk of SUD into adulthood. This study analyzed the longitudinal associations between pediatric onset bipolar disorder and SUD from adolescence to adulthood. METHODS: Psychopathology was assessed prospectively in controls (HC) (N = 53), participants with ADHD (N = 33), and participants with PBD (N = 110) at up to 12 waves (ranging from 6-month to 2-year intervals), and at 25-year follow-up(HC = 39, ADHD = 18, PBD = 53). Logistic regressions were used to assess the effect of PBD on risk for SUD in adulthood. RESULTS: Participants with PBD (mean age 22.58) had 6.53 (CI 2.15-19.83, p < 0.001) times the odds of having adult SUD during the 12-year follow-up compared to HC (mean age 22.46) participants and 2.9 (CI 1.05-8.02, p = 0.040) times the odds than those with ADHD without PBD (mean age 21.59). At 25-year follow-up, PBD diagnosis was positively associated with having SUD in adulthood compared to the HC group (OR 6.42, p < 0.001), but was not different than the ADHD group (mean age PBD = 35.49, ADHD = 34.68, HC = 35.29). Number of life events mediated the relationship between PBD and SUD in adulthood. CONCLUSION: PBD is strongly associated with increased odds of SUD in early adulthood when compared to participants with ADHD and HC, though the differences between those with PBD and ADHD may not persist over time. Understanding the increased odds of SUDs in those with PBD provides an opportunity for intervention and for decreasing morbidity related to PBD.

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39. Porfirio GB, Bardella MDC, Oliani MM, de Moraes C. The impact of physical activity on cognitive, behavioral, and academic performance in children with ADHD: a systematic review. Dement Neuropsychol. 2026; 20: e20250339.

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder affecting many children worldwide. They face challenges in multiple cognitive, behavioral, and emotional functions. It is well established that engaging in physical exercise enhances physical capacities and is associated with improved cognitive performance in children. OBJECTIVE: This systematic review aimed to examine the role of physical activity as a non-pharmacological approach for enhancing the cognitive, and consequently, academic and behavioral, performance in children with ADHD. METHODS: Clinical trials from the last 10 years were searched in the PubMed, LILACS, and Cochrane databases, with 11 studies included in this review. RESULTS: All studies demonstrated improvements in cognitive domains, including memory, attention, and inhibition, as well as behavioral benefits. CONCLUSION: Published data indicate that physical activity positively impacts the cognitive, academic, and behavioral performance of children with ADHD.

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40. Price C, Koning E, Harris AL, Trappenberg N, Hilbert A, Bartel S, Chorney J, Dixon L, Sadek J, Frank GKW, Taylor V, Rasmussen W, Chatur H, Yamada D, Murray SB, Keshen A. Reduction of Loss of Control Eating in Youth With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Following Initiation of Stimulant Medication: A Prospective Study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2026; 46(1): 67-71.

PURPOSE: This prospective observational study aimed to examine changes in loss of control eating (LOC-E) over a 3-month period in youth with comorbid attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and LOC-E who initiated stimulant medication. Secondary objectives included examining changes in eating disorder cognitions, ADHD symptoms, reward sensitivity, impulsivity, and mood/anxiety symptoms. METHOD: Ten youth aged 8 to 13 years (50% female) with diagnosed ADHD and LOC-E were recruited from private practices in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Participants initiated stimulant pharmacotherapy (methylphenidate or lisdexamfetamine dimesylate) and completed baseline and 3-month follow-up assessments. Measures included semi-structured interviews and validated questionnaires assessing LOC-E frequency, eating disorder cognitions, ADHD symptoms, reward sensitivity, and mood/anxiety. RESULTS: LOC-E episode frequency decreased from a baseline mean of 10.30 episodes (SD=6.17) to 2.10 episodes (SD=1.37) at follow-up. Nine of 10 participants reported reduced LOC-E, with one reporting full cessation. Improvements were also observed in eating disorder cognitions, ADHD symptoms, and mood/anxiety. Changes in reward sensitivity were small and variable. CONCLUSION: Findings provide preliminary support for a potential relationship between stimulant medication and reduced LOC-E and associated symptoms in youth with ADHD and comorbid LOC-E. Results mostly align with prior adult studies evaluating lisdexamfetamine for binge-eating disorder. Larger, controlled trials are needed to confirm these findings and investigate neurocognitive mechanisms. This study offers early evidence to inform future pharmacological approaches to treat ADHD and LOC-E in youth.

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41. Qiu M, Fu H, Wang Y, Luo Z, Tong X, Zhang EW, Li B, Hung-Kay Chow D, Leung Ho Yu P. Managing Classroom Behavior in School-Aged Children With ADHD Using AI-Empowered Vest. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng. 2026; 34: 115-25.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders that affects school-age children. Although various treatments are currently available for ADHD, immediate and automated strategies for managing classroom behavior in children with ADHD are still limited. This study introduces an artificial intelligence (AI) empowered vest to monitor classroom activity and provide real-time vibration interventions to help manage hyperactive behavior. The vest integrates two inertial measurement units to collect behavioral data, and a neural network classifies it as typical or hyperactive. The vibration motor will be activated to remind the children to adjust their posture after detecting hyperactive behavior. A controlled experiment was conducted with 40 children aged 7-12 years to evaluate the accuracy of the vest behavior classification and the effectiveness of its vibration-based intervention. Each child attended the same lesson with three sections in the pre-test and the post-test. Vibration interventions were introduced during the post-test in the second and third sections. The teacher used a five-point scale to rate the children’s performance in each section. The classification and intervention accuracy on the test set was 0.84. A significant reduction in activity level was observed after the vibration intervention, and teacher performance ratings improved significantly in sections with the intervention (p <0.05, Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test). These findings suggest that the proposed system provides a promising real-time solution for behavioral intervention in classroom settings.

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42. Rijmen J, Senoussi M, Wiersema JR. Pink Noise and a Pure Tone Both Reduce 1/f Neural Noise in Adults With Elevated ADHD Traits: A Critical Appraisal of the Moderate Brain Arousal Model. J Atten Disord. 2026; 30(1): 23-37.

The moderate brain arousal (MBA) model posits that individuals with (elevated traits of) ADHD have lower levels of neural noise and that auditory random noise can elicit stochastic resonance (SR) and increase neural noise, which improves their cognitive performance. Indeed, research shows that auditory random noise, such as white noise, improves cognitive performance in individuals with (elevated traits of) ADHD. However, the assumptions regarding neural noise in ADHD and the requirement of SR have been insufficiently examined due to a lack of studies incorporating both a second non-random auditory condition and an index of neural noise. Therefore, 69 neurotypical adults completed the ASRS to assess ADHD traits and underwent eyes-closed resting-state EEG, subdivided into three 2-min blocks: silence, continuous auditory pink noise (a random signal), and a continuous 100 Hz pure tone (a non-random signal). We then analyzed the aperiodic slope of the EEG power spectral density, a proposed direct measure of neural noise. Pink noise affected the aperiodic slope differently based on ADHD traits; specifically, it increased the slope in individuals with elevated ADHD traits, indicating a decrease in neural noise. Crucially, the same effect was observed for the pure tone. These findings challenge the MBA model by demonstrating that both random (pink noise) and non-random (pure tone) signals reduce neural noise in individuals with elevated ADHD traits, contradicting the proposed mechanism of stochastic resonance, as well as the direction of effects suggested by the MBA model. These findings warrant further investigation, also in a clinical ADHD sample.

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43. Saker T, Blechman S, Dror C, Ravona-Springer R, Ganem H, Tzur Bitan D, Bloch Y, Maoz H. The effect of intranasal oxytocin on theory of mind in children with attention deficit/hyperactive disorder. J Psychiatr Res. 2026; 192: 95-9.

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is associated with impairments in social cognition and theory of mind (ToM), potentially mediated by alterations in dopaminergic and oxytocinergic pathways. This pilot, proof-of-concept, randomized controlled trial examined the effects of intranasal oxytocin (IN-OT) on ToM and social cognition in children with ADHD. Eight participants (6 males, 2 females), all diagnosed with ADHD, were randomly assigned to receive a single dose of IN-OT or placebo in a double-blind, crossover design. Participants completed assessments of ToM, social cognition, and executive function at baseline and post-treatment. In the second phase, IN-OT was administered alongside prescribed stimulant medication. Statistical analysis was conducted by calculating the Reliable Change Index (RCI > 1.96) and assessing whether participants returned to a functional distribution (SD < 2.0). Results demonstrated improvements in mean reaction time and response consistency in tasks assessing ToM and emotion recognition following OT administration. No adverse effects were reported. While preliminary, this study suggests a possible role of IN-OT in enhancing social cognition and ToM in children with ADHD. Given the study's small sample size, larger trials are needed to confirm these effects and explore IN-OT as a potential adjunctive therapy for ADHD-related social deficits.

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44. Santra R, Pacheco C, Crocetti D, Vidal R, Mostofsky SH, Tunçgenç B. Evaluating Computerised Assessment of Motor Imitation (CAMI) for identifying autism-specific difficulties not observed for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder or neurotypical development. Br J Psychiatry. 2026; 228(1): 29-36.

BACKGROUND: Reliable and specific biomarkers that can distinguish autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) from commonly co-occurring attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are lacking, causing misses and delays in diagnosis, and reducing access to interventions and quality of life. AIMS: To examine whether an innovative, brief (1-min), videogame method called Computerised Assessment of Motor Imitation (CAMI), can identify ASD-specific imitation differences compared with neurotypical children and children with ADHD. METHOD: This cross-sectional study used CAMI alongside standardised parent-report (Social Responsiveness Scale, Second Edition) and observational measures of autism (Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-Second Edition; ADOS-2), ADHD (Conners) and motor ability (Physical and Neurological Examination for Soft Signs). The sample comprised 183 children aged 7-13 years, with ADHD (without ASD), with ASD (with and without ADHD) and who were neurotypical. RESULTS: Regardless of co-occurring ADHD, children with ASD showed poorer CAMI performance than neurotypical children (P < 0.0001; adjusted R(2) = 0.28), whereas children with ADHD and neurotypical children showed similar CAMI performance. Receiver operating curve and support vector machine analyses showed that CAMI distinguishes ASD from both neurotypical children (80% true positive rate) and children with ADHD (70% true positive rate), with a high success rate significantly above chance. Among children with ASD, poor CAMI performance was associated with increased autism traits, particularly ADOS-2 measures of social affect and restricted and repetitive behaviours (adjusted R(2) = 0.23), but not with ADHD traits or motor ability. CONCLUSIONS: Four levels of analyses confirm that poor imitation measured by the low-cost and scalable CAMI method specifically distinguishes ASD not only from neurotypical development, but also from commonly co-occurring ADHD.

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45. Segura P, Pagani M, Bishop SL, Thomson P, Colcombe S, Xu T, Factor ZZ, Hector EC, Kim SH, Lombardo MV, Gozzi A, Castellanos XF, Lord C, Milham MP, Di Martino A. Connectome-based symptom mapping and in silico related gene expression in children with autism and/or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Mol Psychiatry. 2026; 31(1): 282-95.

Clinical, neuroimaging and genomics evidence have increasingly underscored a degree of overlap between autism and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study explores the specific contribution of their core symptoms to shared biology in N = 166 verbal children (6-12 years) with rigorously-established primary diagnoses of either autism or ADHD (without autism). We investigated the associations between inter-individual differences in low motion whole-brain intrinsic functional connectivity (iFC) and dimensional measures of autism and ADHD symptoms indexed by clinician-based observation and parent interview, respectively. Additionally, we explored their linked gene expression patterns in silico. Whole-brain multivariate distance matrix regression revealed a transdiagnostic association between autism severity and iFC of two nodes primarily on the left hemisphere: the middle frontal gyrus of the frontoparietal network and the posterior cingulate cortex of the default mode network. Across children, the greater the iFC between these nodes, the more severe the autism symptoms, even after controlling for ADHD ratings. Results from secondary segregation analyses were consistent with primary findings, underscoring the significance of internetwork iFC for autism symptom severity across diagnoses. No statistically significant brain-behavior relationships were observed for ADHD symptoms. Genetic enrichment analyses of the iFC maps associated with autism symptoms implicated genes known to: (i) have greater rate of variance in autism and ADHD, and (ii) be involved in neuron projections, suggesting shared genetic mechanisms for this specific brain-clinical phenotype. These findings underscore the relevance of transdiagnostic dimensional approaches in linking clinically-defined and observation-based phenomena to shared presentations at the macroscale circuit- and genomic-levels across diagnoses.

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46. Song J, Zhou D, Zhang H, Li J, Wu C, Cui L, Song H, Ji X, Jia L, Meng R. Interplay between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, educational attainment, and vascular risk factors: Insights from Mendelian randomization analyses. J Gen Psychol. 2026; 153(1): 106-29.

The causal relationships between attention-deficit/hyperactive disorder (ADHD) and vascular risk factors remain insufficiently understood. This study aimed to comprehensively investigate the causal effects of ADHD on vascular risk factors and identify crucial mediators in these relationships. Utilizing instrumental variables from genome-wide association study (GWAS) datasets, we applied two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) to explore the causal influences of ADHD on adiposity-related traits, blood pressure regulation, glucose metabolism, lipid profiles, lifestyle habits, chronic kidney disease, and systemic inflammation. Additionally, two-step MR was employed to evaluate the mediating effect of educational attainment (EA) in each newly established causal pair. Genetically determined ADHD was causally linked to increased body mass index (BMI, β = 0.054, p = 1.01E-08), waist-to-hip ratio (WHR, β = 0.041, p = 1.65E-07), waist circumference (WC, β = 0.048, p = 5.78E-15), body fat percentage (BF%, β = 0.024, p = 7.19E-05), risk of type-2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM, OR = 1.104, p = 6.07E-07), and number of cigarettes smoked per day (β = 0.094, p = 3.99E-06), earlier smoking initiation (β = 0.115, p = 2.71E-12), and higher levels of C-reactive protein (CRP, β = 0.054, p = 6.35E-14). Furthermore, EA was demonstrated to play a key mediating role in these causal relationships, with mediation proportions ranging from 41.67% to 11.30%. Our MR analyses supported the causal impacts of ADHD on several vascular risk factors, including BMI, WHR, WC, BF%, T2DM, early smoking initiation, cigarettes consumed per day, and CRP. Moreover, we recognized EA as a critical mediator underlying the established causal pathways. Overall, this study highlighted that individuals with ADHD were more likely to suffer from obesity, T2DM, poor lifestyle habits, and intense inflammation.

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47. Sonzogni SV, de la Fuente LA, Mimura C, Aragon-Daud A, Vignaga SS, Vota D, Manes F, Cetkovich M, Torralva T, Ibañez A, Cánepa ET. Inflammatory and epigenetic alterations associated with attention deficits in adolescents with cocaine base paste addiction. J Psychiatr Res. 2026; 192: 227-36.

Cocaine base paste (CBP) is an intermediate product in the process of obtaining cocaine (COC), known for its low cost, high toxicity, and poor quality. Its use became widespread in Argentina during the socioeconomic crisis of 2001-2002 and is more prevalent among individuals under 25 and those from low socioeconomic backgrounds. This pilot study aimed to characterize inflammatory and epigenetic mechanisms involved in CBP and COC addiction, and their relationship to attention deficits. We analyzed adolescents with CBP dependence (n = 25), COC dependence (n = 22), and non-dependent controls (CTR, n = 25). Gene expression analysis revealed decreased levels of NF-κB and TNF-α in both drug-dependent groups. The CBP group also showed reduced expression of DNMT1 and DNMT3A, while only DNMT1 was decreased in the COC group. These changes were consistent with lower global DNA methylation levels in both groups compared to controls. We observed that DNMT1 expression was related to top-down attention. While higher DNMT1 levels were associated with better attention performance in the CTR and COC groups, the CBP group showed the opposite pattern. These findings support the presence of distinct molecular adaptations in CBP and COC abusers and may help identify potential targets linked to cognitive deficits in addiction.

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48. Spanoghe M, Antonacci T, Schneider N, Molmans THJ. Viewpoint | linking long Covid and AD(H)D through neuroimmune dysfunction: A translational framework proposal for precision medicine. Brain Behav Immun. 2026; 131: 106181.

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49. Takeuchi T, Enokizono T, Tanaka M, Jin T, Takahashi Y, Takada H. A boy with autism spectrum disorder with antibodies to the NMDA-type glutamate receptor: nine-year follow-up, changes in cognitive function　. Child Neuropsychol. 2026; 32(1): 127-34.

Herein, we report a 12-year-old boy with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) who showed a cognitive decline at age 7 and tested positive for cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-type glutamate receptor (GluR) antibodies using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). His cognitive function developed between ages 3 and 5, reaching a total domain developmental quotient (DQ) of 61 on the revised Kyoto Scale of Psychological Development 2001. Despite multiple treatments, his total domain DQ declined to 21 at 10 years and 3 months of age and further to 16 at 12 years and 0 month. The child regressed in cognitive function, losing previously acquired knowledge and skills, resulting in an unbalanced profile. Previously recorded strengths, weaknesses, and preferences were no longer evident. The anti-NMDA-type GluR antibodies might hinder the regaining of cognitive functions once lost and the reconstruction of developmental characteristics in patients with ASD/ADHD. Patients with ASD and ADHD who test positive for NMDA-type GluR antibodies (ELISA) may not follow a typical clinical course.

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50. Tang K, Thompson C, Hill E, Pellicano E, Wan P, Myers B. Barriers to and Enablers of the Transition From Child to Adult Mental Health Services for Autistic Young People and/or Those With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Scoping Review. Child Care Health Dev. 2026; 52(1): e70201.

BACKGROUND: Many autistic young people and/or those with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have co-occurring mental health conditions. These individuals can experience significant challenges when transitioning from child and adolescent mental health services (CAMHS) to adult mental health services (AMHS). However, barriers and enablers to the transition from CAMHS to AMHS are poorly understood for this population. This scoping review sought to synthesise the available evidence on barriers and enablers to the transition from CAMHS to AMHS for autistic young people and/or those with ADHD. METHODS: Arksey and O’Malley’s six-step framework for scoping reviews was used to map out the evidence available and report the findings with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews guidelines (PRISMA-ScR). Electronic databases of Medline, PsycINFO, CINAHL, Scopus and ProQuest Central were searched for relevant studies published in English with no date limitations. The review included studies that focused on young people with a primary diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and/or ADHD (population) and their care transition barriers and/or enablers (concept) from CAMHS to AMHS (context). A socioecological framework informed data extraction and narrative synthesis of data on barriers and enablers to transition. RESULTS: This review identified 1677 studies, of which 66 proceeded to full-text screening, and 10 were included. Most studies focused on institutional-level transition barriers, including poor communication between CAMHS and AMHS and lack of clarity about their role in the transition process. Involvement of the neurodivergent young person in decision-making processes about their mental health care and clinicians who tailored their approaches to the needs of the neurodivergent young person emerged as key enablers of a positive transition experience. Studies largely failed to examine community and policy-related barriers to mental health care transitions. Most studies examined the perspectives of providers or carers, with only five representing the perspectives of neurodivergent people. CONCLUSION: Young people who are autistic and/or have ADHD experience many barriers to their transition from CAMHS to AMHS; however, few studies have examined barriers and enablers to the service transition process.

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51. Tsuji R, Watanabe K, Egawa M, Ito Y, Kanamori Y, Iida M, Nishi D, Sasaki N. Association of ADHD/ASD traits with premenstrual dysphoric disorder among full-time employed women in Japan: A cross-sectional study. J Psychiatr Res. 2026; 192: 371-7.

OBJECTIVES: Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) has a substantial impact on adult female workers. This study investigates the relationship between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) traits and PMDD among female employees with no history of pregnancy and not using contraceptives. METHODS: This cross-sectional study analyzed data from an online survey conducted in October 2023 among Japanese full-time female employees aged 20-44 who have not used contraceptives and who have not experienced pregnancy. ADHD/ASD traits were assessed using the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale and the 10-item Autism Spectrum Quotient, respectively. We used the PMDD scale, which was developed in Japanese based on the research criteria described in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder-IV-text revision. Multiple logistic regression was conducted by adjusting age, educational attainment, and occupation. RESULTS: A total of 2000 participants were included in the analysis, of which 8.6 % exhibited ADHD traits, and 12.8 % exhibited ASD traits. The prevalence of PMDD was 5.1 %. Participants with ADHD traits had a significantly higher risk of PMDD, which remained significant after adjusting for covariates (adjusted OR = 6.49, 95 % CI: 4.10-10.2, p < 0.001). No significant association was found between ASD traits and PMDD. CONCLUSION: Among full-time female employees, ADHD traits were significantly associated with suffering from PMDD, while no significant association was observed between ASD traits and PMDD. These present epidemiological results may contribute to improving workplace and clinical interventions to address PMDD.

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52. Ünsel-Bolat G, Genç-Akdağ D, Bolat H. Clinical Insights Into a Rare SETD2 Disorder: Report of a Novel Variant. Dev Neurobiol. 2026; 86(1): e70002.

The SET domain containing the 2 (SETD2) gene encodes a histone methyltransferase responsible for H3K36me3 modification, playing key roles in transcriptional regulation, RNA splicing, and DNA repair. Pathogenic variants in SETD2 have been linked to variable phenotypes, including Luscan-Lumish syndrome (LLS, OMIM #616831), autosomal dominant intellectual developmental disorder 70 (MRD70, OMIM #620157), and Rabin-Pappas syndrome (RAPAS, OMIM #620155). Defining the severity of intellectual disability/developmental delay caused by SETD2 variants is important for accurate genetic counseling. This study aims to present a patient carrying a novel de novo nonsense variant in the SETD2 gene and to expand the clinical phenotype spectrum associated with SETD2 variants. A 17-year-old male with dysmorphic features, epilepsy, attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and moderate intellectual disability underwent a detailed clinical and genetic evaluation. A novel de novo heterozygous nonsense variant in the SETD2 gene, NM_014159.7:c.7084C>T (NP_054878.5:p.Gln2362Ter), was identified by whole-exome sequencing. This variant was classified as likely pathogenic according to American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMG) guidelines. The patient exhibited clinical features overlapping with LLS. Further research is warranted to elucidate the mechanistic differences underlying various SETD2 variants, which will be essential for improving our understanding of SETD2-related disorders and for providing accurate genetic counseling and targeted management strategies.

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53. Usmani S. Perils of undiagnosed ADHD in adolescents. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2026; 31(1): 301-3.

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54. Yamada E, Trehan S, Stark A, Krutsch K, Datta P. Atomoxetine as a Viable ADHD Treatment in Breastfeeding Mothers: Evidence From Human Milk Pharmacokinetic Analysis. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2026; 46(1): 16-22.

PURPOSE/BACKGROUND: Atomoxetine is a selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor prescribed for the management of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Untreated ADHD can significantly damage a woman’s well-being and often worsens during postpartum. As a result, physicians often recommend continued medication therapy during pregnancy and postpartum; however, there is limited data evaluating the safety of atomoxetine’s transfer into human milk. METHODS: The InfantRisk Center’s Human Milk Biorepository collected milk samples from 10 lactating participants who were treated with atomoxetine 40 to 100 mg daily. The concentrations of atomoxetine in milk were quantified using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. RESULTS: The mean atomoxetine concentration in milk was 12 ng/mL at an adjusted daily dose of 80 mg, resulting in a relative infant dose (RID) of 0.19%. To estimate a worst-case scenario, the maximum concentration of 39 ng/mL was used to simulate a worst-case scenario RID of 0.65%. There were no reported adverse effects in the breastfed infants. CONCLUSIONS: The transfer of atomoxetine into human milk is minimal, with a 0.19% RID, well below the 5% safety threshold for psychoactive medications. The minimal transfer suggests that maternal atomoxetine use poses a very low risk to breastfed infants, making it a suitable choice for medication management of ADHD in lactating women.

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55. Zarchev M, Gigase FAJ, de Witte L, Cecil CAM, Hillegers MHJ, Ospina LH, Suleri A, Rommel AS, Muetzel RL, Bergink V. Maternal infection – but not inflammation – is associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms during childhood: a population-based cohort study. Brain Behav Immun. 2026; 131: 106134.

BACKGROUND: Studies are equivocal on whether prenatal exposure to infection and inflammation is linked to higher risk of attention-deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) in the offspring. The current study investigated the relationship between prenatal exposure to maternal cytokines, C-reactive protein (CRP), fever and the risk of ADHD in childhood and early adolescence in the general pediatric population. METHOD: Data came from 6,555 mother-child pairs enrolled in Generation R, a Dutch prospective population-based cohort. The primary predictors were 1) self-reported fever and/or infections in each trimester; 2) a composite cytokine index of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-17a, IL-23, and IFN-γ and 3) CRP. The primary outcome was ADHD symptoms measured using the Child Behavioral Checklist (parent-reported) and Teacher Report Form (teacher-reported), obtained at three time points (ages 6, 10 and 14 years). Linear mixed models were used to estimate overall associations, adjusted for maternal factors (i.e., education, national origin, age, current psychopathology, psychosocial stress, smoking, pre-pregnancy BMI, parity) and child factors (i.e., age, sex, polygenic score for neurodevelopmental disorders). We also investigated if the associations were moderated by 1) the child’s polygenic score for neurodevelopmental disorders and 2) maternal stress during the pregnancy. RESULTS: We found a small, but significant association between fever and ADHD symptoms (ß=0.06 [95 %CI = 0.01, 0.11]). No significant association was found between the cytokine composite index, individual cytokines, or CRP and ADHD symptoms. No interactions were detected for any of the exposures with a polygenic score for neurodevelopmental disorders (all interactions p-values > 0.198) or maternal stress (all p-values > 0.403). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that maternal fever and infections during pregnancy are linked to offspring ADHD symptomatology. The standardized effect size was smaller than that of other reported perinatal risk factors for ADHD. Cytokine levels and CRP as markers for chronic inflammation were not associated with ADHD.

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56. Zhang P, Zhao G, Li J, Tian X, Xiao L, Diao H, Xu X, Jin Y, Wu H. Unlocking exercise compliance in children with ADHD: A comprehensive analysis of influencing factors. Res Dev Disabil. 2025; 168: 105202.

BACKGROUND: Despite documented benefits of exercise for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), poor adherence to exercise programs limits therapeutic effectiveness. While existing research focuses on symptom outcomes, the behavioral processes and contextual factors influencing sustained exercise participation remain underexplored. AIMS: This study systematically explored facilitators and barriers to exercise compliance-operationally defined as the degree to which a child’s actual exercise behavior (frequency, intensity, duration) aligns with prescribed recommendations-in children with ADHD from parental perspectives, using the Capability-Opportunity-Motivation-Behavior (COM-B) model. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: A qualitative descriptive study was conducted with 16 parents (13 mothers, 3 fathers; child age range: 6-12 years) of children diagnosed with ADHD, purposively sampled from a home-based exercise intervention program at a tertiary hospital in China (June-September 2024). Sampling considered child characteristics (age, ADHD subtype) and family socioeconomic status to ensure diverse perspectives. Semi-structured interviews (20-40 min) explored parents’ experiences with their children’s exercise participation. Data were analyzed using directed content analysis, whereby transcripts were systematically coded line-by-line within the COM-B framework while remaining open to inductive subtheme emergence. Data saturation was achieved at 16 interviews. OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: Analysis identified 12 distinct subthemes across three COM-B domains. Capability barriers included motor skill deficits, attention difficulties, emotional dysregulation, and limited self-management, collectively undermining children’s confidence and willingness to exercise. Opportunity factors functioned bidirectionally: parental knowledge, companionship, peer support, and facility accessibility enhanced adherence; financial constraints, lack of parental time, and excessive academic workload-particularly salient in China’s high-pressure educational context-significantly impeded participation. Motivation evolved dynamically, with external rewards initially driving engagement but intrinsic interest and perceived symptom improvement sustaining long-term adherence. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: This study provides the first theoretically grounded, qualitative examination of exercise adherence processes (rather than solely outcomes) in pediatric ADHD. Findings reveal culture-specific barriers and the dynamic interplay among capability, opportunity, and motivation. Clinicians should conduct individualized capability assessments before prescribing exercise and tailor programs to children’s motor abilities. Educators can adjust homework loads and integrate movement breaks. Parents should prioritize exercise companionship and employ structured reinforcement. These exploratory findings from a single-center Chinese sample require validation in diverse populations.

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57. Zhong X, Yang H, Zhang R, Xie L, Luo R. Diagnostic accuracy of miRNAs in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Public Health. 2025; 13: 1712404.

OBJECTIVE: Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder, impacting approximately 5.2% of children globally. The goal of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of miRNAs in identifying ADHD in pediatric and adolescent populations. METHODS: A literature search was conducted in PubMed and CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) through May 20th, 2025, with no language limitations. Included studies were those reporting the diagnostic accuracy of miRNAs for ADHD in children under 18 years of age. A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to determine the combined estimates of the area under the curve (AUC), sensitivity, and specificity for the grouped measurements. RESULTS: Eleven studies published between 2014 and 2024 reporting on miRNAs were retained. The combined results yielded a sensitivity of 0.82 (0.78-0.86), specificity of 0.82 (0.78-0.85), a positive likelihood ratio (PLR) of 4.45 (3.63-5.47), a negative likelihood ratio (NLR) of 0.22 (0.17-0.27), a diagnostic odds ratio (DOR) of 20.48 (13.92-30.15), and an AUC of 0.89 (0.86-0.91). CONCLUSION: The meta-analysis found that miRNAs may serve as diagnostic markers for ADHD in children and adolescents. However, the current included studies remain limited in quantity, with sample sizes likewise constrained. To substantiate this promising potential, future investigations should employ expanded sample cohorts anj01d more rigorously standardized methodologies. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION: https://inplasy.com; unique identifier (INPLASY202570060).

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