1. Why do women like me get diagnosed with ADHD late?. Nature. 2026.

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2. Adamou M, Kehagias A, Antoniou G. A mathematical framework for modelling the dynamic nature of ADHD symptoms. Front Psychiatry. 2025; 16: 1671764.

BACKGROUND: Attention-Deficit/Hyperctivity Disorder (ADHD) is characterized by core symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that fluctuate dynamically based on context. Standard diagnostic criteria provide static descriptions, failing to capture this variability, while existing computational models may lack interpretability or flexibility for clinical application. There is a need for dynamic, theory-driven models to represent ADHD. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to develop and present a set of interpretable mathematical models representing the dynamic, context-dependent nature of the core symptoms of ADHD, grounded in established neuropsychological principles. METHODS: Algebraic equations were formulated to represent symptom dynamics. Inattention was modelled using modulated exponential decay functions. Hyperactivity was represented by a modulated sinusoidal function reflecting its oscillatory pattern. Impulsive choice was modelled using hyperbolic delay discounting combined with a probabilistic softmax choice rule. RESULTS: The study produced specific mathematical equations that quantify the temporal dynamics and contextual modulation for each core symptom domain. These equations provide a formal representation of how attention decays, hyperactivity fluctuates, and impulsive choices are made, incorporating individual sensitivities and situational factors pertinent to ADHD. CONCLUSION: The proposed mathematical models offer a novel, quantitative framework for understanding and representing the dynamic nature of ADHD symptoms. Grounded in neuropsychological theory, these interpretable models provide a potential advance over static descriptions and may facilitate improved clinical assessment, personalized treatment strategies, and targeted research into the mechanisms underlying ADHD. Further empirical validation is warranted to establish their clinical utility. Further empirical validation is warranted to establish their clinical utility.

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3. Hanes TK, Andersen AC, Boyer BE, Wagner K. Gender Differences in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Outcomes for Adolescents With ADHD: Examining the Impact of Internalizing Symptoms. J Atten Disord. 2026: 10870547251415431.

OBJECTIVE: This study investigates the effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) for adolescents with ADHD, while focusing on gender differences and comorbid internalizing symptoms. METHOD: A quantitative secondary data analysis was performed on 200 adolescents aged 12 to 18 years who participated in randomized control trials in either the Netherlands or Norway. RESULTS: Overall, CBT significantly reduced ADHD symptoms from pretest to posttest on parent measures; however, treatment response varied based on gender, internalizing symptoms, and treatment formats. Girls with elevated depression showed significantly smaller reductions in ADHD symptoms compared to boys with similar depressive profiles (p = .02), even after controlling for baseline ADHD severity. Effect size analyses revealed that girls benefited from both CBT delivery formats, but symptom improvement was nearly twice as large in individual CBT (d = 0.90, large effect) compared to group CBT (d = 0.49, moderate effect). CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that depression may impact treatment response among girls, and that individual CBT may offer enhanced benefits for adolescent girls with ADHD.

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4. Özmen S, Dursun S, Demirci E. The Role of GDNF and NSE in Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: The Relationship with Sleep and Eating. Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci. 2026; 24(1): 58-66.

OBJECTIVE: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is one of the most common psychiatric disorders in childhood. This study aims to examine blood levels of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor and neuron-specific enolase in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and to explore their relationships with sleep patterns, eating behaviors, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms. METHODS: A total of 51 patients diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and 20 healthy controls were included in the study. The Children’s Sleep Habits Questionnaire and Eating Behavior Assessment Scale for Children were administered. Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor and neuron-specific enolase levels were measured using the Bioassay Technology Laboratory Human ELISA Kit. RESULTS: When comparing the serum glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor levels between groups, no statistically significant difference was found in the distribution of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor levels (p = 0.645). The serum neuron-specific enolase levels in the attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder group were found to be higher than the control group (p = 0.038). Correlation analysis demonstrated a negative correlation between glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor levels and total scores on the eating scale (r = -0.309, p = 0.026). CONCLUSION: These results highlight the possible involvement of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor in the regulation of eating patterns among children diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Higher serum neuron-specific enolase levels were observed as discriminative between healthy and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder children.

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5. Pedersen MV, Lindhard MS, Moster D, Lie RT, Henriksen TB. Umbilical Cord Blood pH Level, Apgar Score, and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. JAMA Netw Open. 2026; 9(1): e2554672.

IMPORTANCE: Perinatal hypoxia is an important cause of neurodevelopmental impairment and may thus be associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In population-based studies, hypoxia is often assessed by Apgar score alone; however, criteria for relevant perinatal hypoxia require both clinical and biochemical abnormalities (eg, a low Apgar score and a low umbilical cord blood pH level). OBJECTIVES: To identify full-term and near-term newborns exposed to hypoxia by combining the Apgar score and the umbilical cord blood pH level and to investigate their association with ADHD. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: This cohort study, with follow-up from birth until December 31, 2022, identified all singleton newborns with a gestational age of 35 weeks or more, without major malformations, born between January 1, 2004, and December 31, 2018, using a Danish nationwide registry. Data were analyzed from October 2024 to November 2025. EXPOSURE: Combinations of a 5-minute Apgar score category (0-3, 4-6, and 7-10) and an umbilical cord blood pH category (<7.10, 7.10-7.19, and ≥7.20). Newborns with an Apgar score of 7 to 10 combined with a pH level of 7.20 or higher were considered the reference group. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: The primary outcome was ADHD identified by hospital contacts with ADHD diagnosis and/or prescriptions of ADHD medication. Outcome measures were odds ratios adjusted for relevant confounders. Multiple imputation was used to handle missing data. RESULTS: Of 819 658 newborns, 419 581 (51.2%) were male, and 429 492 (52.5%) were born 39 to 40 weeks of gestational age. Both a low Apgar score of 0 to 3 and a pH less than 7.10 were observed for 249 newborns (0.3%). Increased odds of ADHD was observed for most combinations of a pH of less than 7.20 combined with an Apgar score of less than 7 compared with the reference group and was most pronounced when the Apgar score was 0 to 3 and the pH was less than 7.10 (adjusted odds ratio, 1.86 [95% CI, 1.04-3.33]). If the pH was higher than 7.20, there was no association between Apgar score and ADHD. Similarly, if the Apgar score was 7 or higher, there was no association between pH and ADHD. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: In this cohort study, an increased odds of ADHD was observed when clinical and biochemical measures of hypoxia were combined as expressed by a low Apgar score and a low umbilical cord pH level at birth. However, when either the Apgar score or the umbilical cord blood pH level was normal, perinatal hypoxia seemed less likely, and no increased odds of ADHD was observed.

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6. Soares de Lara MV, Muller GC, Caus LB, Marques DM, Almeida AS, Alves CB, Martins BCB, Calcagnotto ME, de Oliveira Porciuncula L. Sex-specific interhemispheric brain oscillation asymmetries in an ADHD rat model. Neuroscience. 2026; 593: 195-203.

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention, with notable differences between sexes. Brain oscillation patterns recorded on electroencephalogram (EEG) are suggested as potential contributors to the diagnosis of psychiatric disorders, including ADHD. However, interhemispheric analysis of brain oscillations considering sex differences requires further investigation. We evaluated the correlation of the hemispheric brain oscillation asymmetries with behavioral and neurochemical parameters in male and female adolescent spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR, ADHD model) and Wistar Kyoto rats (WKY, control strain). Subdural electrodes were implanted, open field task was used for behavioral analyses, and immunocontent of dopamine (DAT) and norepinephrine (NET) transporters known to be impaired in ADHD were analyzed. In the open field task, the ADHD model exhibited hyperactivity, evidenced by increased distance traveled, mean speed, number of stops, and rearing. In the frontal cortex, females from the ADHD model demonstrated asymmetries with higher power of alpha, beta, and gamma bands in the right hemisphere compared to the left. However, NET immunocontent showed a rightward pattern in the frontal cortex only in the control strain (WKY). The interhemispheric asymmetries in brain oscillations observed in females from the ADHD model were not associated with NET and DAT levels. Given that brain oscillations asymmetries described here resemble those found in mood disorders such as depression and anxiety, our data suggest that these sex differences may be relevant to the neurobiology of ADHD and its emotional comorbidities.

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7. Yadav BK, Tomar MS, Pateriya A, Kar SK, Arya A, Shrivastava A, Gupta PK. Metabolomic Profile in Children and Adolescents with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders. Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci. 2026; 24(1): 151-65.

OBJECTIVE: Biological processes are the sum of metabolic reactions that result in intermediate and end metabolite products. These processes are the reflection of genetic regulation and are profoundly impacted by environmental influence and changes, including those associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study aimed to assess the untargeted plasma metabolomic profile of children and adolescents with ADHD and to compare them with healthy controls and to study associations of dysregulated metabolic parameters with the clinical and socio-demographic parameters of ADHD. METHODS: This study involved 42 registered cases of ADHD among children aged 6 to 16 years, diagnosed based on DSM-5 criteria. Each case was matched by age and gender with 24 healthy controls. The severity of ADHD was evaluated using the ADHD Rating Scale, while behavioral issues were assessed through the Child Behavior Checklist. The gas chromatography-mass spectrometry technique was employed to examine changes in plasma metabolite content. RESULTS: We identified a total of 45 metabolites in the ADHD subtypes, which exhibited altered levels compared to the control group. The content of these metabolites and associated metabolic pathways showed significant differences between ADHD subjects and controls. Furthermore, we analyzed biomarkers derived from the compounds with the greatest fold changes in accumulation levels. CONCLUSION: The identification and analysis of these metabolites and metabolic pathways represent a promising new approach for tracking disease progression in ADHD. The findings of this study indicate that metabolite-based biomarkers may hold considerable potential for effective disease management.

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