1. Blanco-Martínez N, Carballo-Afonso R, Estévez-Agudo J, Ayán-Pérez C, Diz-Gómez JC. Physical Fitness Profiles Among Children and Adolescents With ADHD and ASD: A Comparison With Typically Developing Peers. Autism Res. 2026: e70261.

Children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often present physical and motor challenges that may compromise health, yet direct comparisons between these neurodevelopmental conditions and typically developing (TD) peers remain limited. This study aimed to examine the physical fitness profiles of these three groups. A total of 1537 school-aged participants were recruited from mainstream educational settings. The assessment included selected tests from the EUROFIT battery and body mass index (BMI). Composite indices of physical fitness and motor coordination were computed using age- and sex-adjusted Z-scores. Both the ADHD (n = 80) and ASD (n = 36) groups showed significantly lower cardiorespiratory fitness, balance, and upper-body coordination compared with TD peers (n = 1413). Lower-body muscular strength was reduced only in the ASD group, which also performed worse than the ADHD group. Flexibility and BMI distributions did not differ significantly across groups. Plate Tapping and Flamingo Balance test indices were markedly lower in both clinical groups relative to TD peers. Children and adolescents with ADHD and ASD had lower physical fitness than TD peers. Direct comparisons between ADHD and ASD revealed generally similar profiles, except for lower muscular strength in ASD. These findings highlight the need for early screening and tailored interventions to support healthier developmental trajectories and enhance functional outcomes in neurodevelopmental populations. Children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often experience physical and coordination difficulties compared with their typically developing peers. In this school‐based study, both groups showed lower cardiorespiratory fitness, balance, and coordination, while children with ASD also had reduced leg strength. These findings highlight the importance of early identification and school‐based physical activity programs to support health, daily functioning, and long‐term well‐being in neurodevelopmental populations. eng.

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2. Brancati GE, Costagli E, Froli A, Gemignani S, Magnesa A, Palazzesi G, Medda P, Schiavi E, Perugi G. Clinical Characterization of Emotional Dysregulation in Adults with and Without ADHD: A Cross-Sectional Multigroup Comparative Study. Brain Sci. 2026; 16(4).

Background: The association between emotional dysregulation (ED) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has been widely documented. However, a consensus has yet to be reached on how to conceptualize this domain within ADHD. Particularly, ADHD + ED may represent a distinct condition, a more severe ADHD, or a comorbidity. We explored these three main hypotheses, investigating clinical differences between patients with ADHD, ADHD + ED, and ED. Methods: In total, 101 participants (ages 18-50) were recruited and divided into four groups: ADHD (N = 23), ED (N = 28), ADHD + ED (N = 27), and HC (N = 23). ADHD and ED were assessed using the Diagnostic Interview for ADHD in adults (DIVA-5) and the Wender-Reimherr Adult Attention Deficit Disorder Scale (WRAADDS). Sociodemographic and clinical variables were compared among the groups. Results: Participants with ADHD and ADHD + ED exhibited comparably high ADHD severity and executive dysfunction ratings. While participants with ADHD + ED shared elevated negative emotionality and higher rates of mood disorders and anxiety disorders with participants with ED compared with those with ADHD, they showed specifically increased developmental and disruptive comorbidities, as well as earlier onset and greater cyclicity of comorbid mood disorders. Psychosocial functional impairments were similarly elevated on average in ADHD + ED and ADHD, but ADHD + ED showed more pronounced and widespread deficits across multiple domains. Conclusions: ADHD + ED is unlikely to represent a more severe form of ADHD but may be more appropriately conceptualized as either a distinct entity or a « comorbid » phenotype. Comparisons with ED without ADHD highlighted clinical features specific to ADHD + ED, including a higher neurodevelopmental load, impulse-control disorders, and a poorer course of mood disorders.

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3. Dubrall D, Reifferscheid M, Egberts K, Fekete S, Neubert A, Rock HW, Plener P, Below M, Romanos M, Schmid M, Sachs B. Prescribing trends and spontaneous reporting patterns of adverse drug reactions of ADHD medications in children and adolescents in germany: A retrospective analysis (2013-2022). Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2026.

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4. Galesne C, Kinouani S, Dow C, Charles MA, Tafflet M, van der Waerden J, Heude B, Khalfallah O, Le Mouroux C, Davidovic L, Galera C. Cord blood C-reactive protein and ADHD symptoms at age 5: Evidence from two French birth cohorts. Brain Behav Immun. 2026: 106780.

BACKGROUND: Conditions associated with perinatal inflammation have been identified as risk factors for neurodevelopmental disorders, including Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). However, data linking early inflammatory biomarkers with later ADHD symptoms remain scarce. The acute phase C-reactive protein (CRP) is a key marker of systemic inflammation. To date, no studies have examined the association between CRP levels in cord blood (reflecting neonatal inflammation) and subsequent childhood ADHD symptoms. Here, we aimed to investigate whether elevated cord blood CRP concentrations are associated with child’s ADHD symptoms at age 5. METHODS: We analyzed data from 1019 and 831 mother-child pairs enrolled in the ELFE and EDEN prospective birth cohorts, respectively. CRP levels in cord blood were measured using an immunoassay. ADHD symptoms were assessed at age 5 using the hyperactivity-inattention subscale of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Outcomes included both continuous scores and categorical thresholds: borderline (≥6) and abnormal (≥7) hyperactivity-inattention symptoms. Multivariate linear and logistic regression models were conducted within each cohort to assess associations between elevated CRP levels (≥75th percentile) and ADHD symptoms. Results were then pooled using random-effects meta-analytic methods. All analyses were conducted using R version 4.5.0. RESULTS: Borderline hyperactivity-inattention scores were observed in 21% of children in the ELFE cohort and 14% in EDEN. After adjusting for maternal sociodemographic, lifestyle, and pregnancy-related factors, as well as child characteristics at birth, elevated cord blood CRP was significantly associated with higher odds of ADHD symptoms: borderline scores (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.42; 95% CI: 1.08-1.86), abnormal scores (aOR = 1.48; 95% CI: 1.06-2.08), and increased continuous symptom scores (β = 0.29; 95% CI: 0.04-0.54). CONCLUSIONS: Higher CRP concentrations in cord blood are associated with greater ADHD symptom severity at age 5. These findings support the hypothesis that early-life inflammation may contribute to the developmental origins of ADHD and suggest that CRP could serve as a potential early biomarker of neurodevelopmental vulnerability.

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5. Gao D, Chen J, Li F, Chen Y. Vestibular Evoked Myogenic Potentials Reveal Impairments in Vestibular Nerve Pathways in Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Audiol Res. 2026; 16(2).

OBJECTIVE: This study aims to analyze the characteristics of vestibular evoked myogenic potentials (VEMPs) and evaluate specific vestibular nerve pathway impairments in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) compared to typically developing (TD) children. METHODS: Forty-five children with ADHD and 34 TD children were recruited. All participants underwent comprehensive acoustic (ACS) and galvanic (GVS) VEMP examinations. To account for within-subject correlation, statistical analyses were performed at the subject level. RESULTS: Children with ADHD exhibited prolonged P13 and N23 latencies in both ACS-cVEMP and GVS-cVEMP compared to TD children. For oVEMP, the N1 latency of ACS-oVEMP was significantly shorter in the ADHD group, and the interval was prolonged. Additionally, the absolute amplitude of ACS-cVEMP was significantly and markedly higher in children with ADHD. CONCLUSIONS: Children with ADHD exhibit functional abnormalities in both the saccule inferior vestibular nerve pathway (reflected by cVEMP) and the utricle superior vestibular nerve pathway (reflected by oVEMP). These impairments are primarily characterized by altered neural conduction latencies and hyperactive amplitude responses, providing valuable electrophysiological insights into vestibular dysfunction in ADHD.

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6. Li J, Hou X, Fan Q, Chen L. The efficacy and safety of transcranial direct current stimulation in patients with ADHD: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Psychiatry. 2026; 17: 1747588.

OBJECTIVE: This meta-analysis evaluated the efficacy and safety of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) for treating Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). METHODS: Following PRISMA guidelines, we analyzed 28 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) involving 1,864 participants. Outcomes encompassed core ADHD symptoms, hot and cold executive functions (EFs)-including inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility-as well as safety profiles based on adverse events. A multilevel meta-analysis was performed using a random-effects model. Subgroup analyses and meta-regressions were conducted to explore potential moderating factors. RESULTS: Compared to sham stimulation, tDCS did not significantly improve core ADHD symptoms (standardized mean difference (SMD) = -0.29, 95% CI [-0.59, 0.01], p= 0.05). Similarly, no significant overall effects were observed for cold EFs: inhibitory control (Hedges’ g(g)= -0.11, 95% CI [-0.26, 0.05], p=0.19), working memory (g= 0.13, 95% CI [-0.06, 0.32], p= 0.26), or cognitive flexibility (SMD = -0.42, 95% CI [-1.13, 0.29], p= 0.24). The effect on hot EFs was also non-significant (g = 0.27, 95% CI [-0.14, 0.70], p = 0.19). Exploratory analyses indicated that anode placement at Fp2 was associated with improvement in both inhibitory control (g= -0.52, 95% CI [-0.93, -0.11], p=0.01) and working memory (g = 0.72, 95% CI [0.22, 1.22], p = 0.004), although the overall test for interaction was not significant for inhibitory control (p= 0.19). The most common adverse reactions were mild and transient local skin symptoms, such as itching and redness (RR = 1.42, p=0.04). CONCLUSION: tDCS was well-tolerated but did not demonstrate significant overall efficacy for core ADHD symptoms or executive functions. Anodal stimulation at Fp2 showed potential selective benefits warranting further investigation. tDCS is not currently recommended as a standalone treatment for ADHD. Future research should optimize stimulation protocols and explore combined interventions with behavioral or cognitive therapies. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO, identifier CRD42024612055.

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7. Lin X, Wang Z, Yan H, Zeng S, Wang P, Wu Z, Yu X, Han J. [Research on weighted hypergraph attention neural network for the diagnosis of psychiatric disorders using brain functional connectivity networks]. Sheng Wu Yi Xue Gong Cheng Xue Za Zhi. 2026; 43(2): 319-27.

The hypergraph neural network (HGNN) has demonstrated efficacy in modeling high-order interactions among brain regions, thus providing a promising framework for analyzing brain functional connectivity networks in the context of psychiatric research. The present study proposes a phase-amplitude coupling-weighted hypergraph attention neural network (PAC-HyperGAT) model for the diagnosis of psychiatric diseases. The proposed methodology first constructs a functional hypergraph using elastic net-based sparse regression and then assigns physiologically meaningful weights to hyperedges by quantifying the phase-amplitude coupling strength among nodes within each hyperedge. In light of these findings, the present study proposes a novel hypergraph attention convolution kernel. The efficacy of this approach is evidenced by its enhancement of the node-level message passing mechanism, a feat that facilitates the integration of hyperedge weight information. This phenomenon, in turn, results in an enhancement of the discriminative ability of brain functional connectivity network representations. The proposed model is systematically evaluated on publicly available electroencephalogram datasets for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and major depressive disorder (MDD). The experimental results demonstrate that PAC-HyperGAT attains an accuracy of (72.14 ± 9.19) % in ADHD classification, surpassing the performance of existing brain functional connectivity network methods across a range of evaluation metrics. The model exhibits notable efficacy in MDD classification, signifying substantial cross-disorder generalization capabilities. Furthermore, PAC-HyperGAT has demonstrated efficacy in identifying brain regions associated with these disorders. In summary, the proposed model demonstrates excellent generalizability, robustness, and neurobiological interpretability, providing a reliable analytical framework for objective diagnosis and mechanistic investigation of psychiatric diseases.

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8. Makin L, Allen K, Tchanturia K. Time to notice neurodiversity in eating disorder services: a three-year real-world analysis of autism, ADHD, and AuDHD. Front Psychiatry. 2026; 17: 1787957.

INTRODUCTION: Autism and ADHD frequently co-occur and each of them are overrepresented in clinical eating disorder (ED) services, where they are associated with longer treatment, poorer treatment experiences, and worse clinical outcomes. Separately, Autistic and ADHD patients with EDs present with greater ED psychopathology, anxiety, and depression. Autistic patients also present with poorer quality of life, increased suicide attempts, and greater functional difficulties. However, no study has directly compared patients with EDs who are both Autistic and ADHD (AuDHD) with Autistic-only, ADHD-only, or neurotypical patients. METHOD: This cross-sectional, observational study compared ED psychopathology (EDE-Q), psychological distress (CORE10), and work and social functioning (WSAS) across adult ED patients reporting suspected or known Autism, ADHD, both, or neither. No formal hypotheses were pre-specified. Data were three-years of routinely collected intake information from a specialist adult ED service. Patients were classified as Autistic or ADHD if they reported a diagnosis/suspicion at intake, or, for ADHD, if they reported ADHD medication. RESULTS: Of 1,252 patients, 32 (2.6%) were classified as AuDHD, 45 (3.5%) as Autistic-only, and 81 (6.5%) as ADHD-only. Group differences were small but consistent. EDE-Q scores were highest in the ADHD-only group and lowest in the Neither group ((M = 4.24 vs M = 3.85, f=0.07). CORE10 and WSAS scores were highest in AuDHD and lowest in Neither (M = 24.16 vs M = 20.1, f=0.12; M = 26.56 vs M = 20.06, f=0.16). DISCUSSION: Autistic and/or ADHD patients with EDs showed greater psychological distress, and poorer functioning, particularly when both were present. ADHD was particularly linked to increased ED psychopathology. Screening for neurodivergence in ED services may support person-centred care and improve outcomes.

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9. Milioudi M, Stabouli S, Zafeiriou D, Vargiami E. Enuresis, ADHD and BDNF: A Narrative Review of the Hypothesized Interconnections and Potential Triplet Relationship. Brain Sci. 2026; 16(4).

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and enuresis are interconnected in several ways, primarily through their potential links to neurodevelopmental factors and brain function. ADHD is considered a neurobehavioral and neuropsychiatric condition characterized by numerous comorbidities, and it represents one of the most frequently encountered neuropsychiatric disorders in clinical practice. Enuresis constitutes a subgroup of intermittent incontinence occurring during sleep that can be further subdivided into monosymptomatic (MNE) and non-monosymptomatic enuresis (NMNE). BDNF plays a crucial role in neurodevelopment, including neuronal growth, proliferation, survival, differentiation, and synaptic plasticity. This narrative review synthesized available literature identified through a systematic search of PubMed/MEDLINE, Science Direct, and Scopus databases (January 2000-December 2025). However, the evidence base is heterogeneous, and findings regarding BDNF in ADHD are inconsistent. Studies examining BDNF in enuresis often involve urinary BDNF, which reflects local bladder production rather than central BDNF activity. Further research is needed to clarify the specific roles of BDNF in the development and manifestation of these conditions and to fully elucidate the complex relationship between BDNF, ADHD, and enuresis.

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10. Şahin B. Beyond questionnaires: The case for objective circadian biomarkers in comparative studies of sluggish cognitive tempo and ADHD. Chronobiol Int. 2026: 1-2.

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11. Snipes S, Jaramillo V, Krugliakova E, Volk C, Furrer M, Studler M, LeBourgeois M, Kurth S, Jenni OG, Huber R. The Interaction between Sleep and Development on Wake EEG Oscillations. eNeuro. 2026; 13(4).

The amount of time previously spent awake or asleep strongly impacts the sleep electroencephalogram (EEG), especially slow waves during nonrapid-eye-movement (NREM) sleep. These effects on the sleep EEG meaningfully interact with age and to a lesser extent developmental disorders such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). We aimed to determine whether EEG oscillations during wakefulness were likewise affected by the interaction of sleep and development, using data collected from 163 participants aged 3-25 years old (62 female). We analyzed age- and sleep-dependent changes in two measures of oscillatory activity (amplitudes and density) and aperiodic activity (offsets and exponents). Finally, we compared wake EEG in children with ADHD (N = 58) to neurotypical controls, with habitual good sleep quality required for inclusion. We found that oscillation amplitudes exhibited the same dynamics as sleep slow waves: decreasing with age, decreasing after sleep, and the overnight decrease decreasing with age. Strikingly, wake oscillation densities in the alpha band decreased overnight in children but increased overnight in adolescents and adults. Aperiodic measures were affected by both sleep and age albeit with minimal interaction. No wake measure showed significant effects of ADHD, suggesting that previously reported differences in patients may reflect uncontrolled variability in sleep quality rather than disorder-specific effects. While these results do not disentangle homeostatic from circadian effects, they underscore the need to control for sleep/wake history and measurement scheduling in all EEG experiments, especially when focusing on children and adolescents.

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12. Ünsel-Bolat G, Bolat H, Yıldırım S, Özgül S, Tahıllıoğlu A, Yazıcı KU, Bacanlı A, Parıltay E, Aygüneş-Jafari D, Kosova B, Rohde LA, Akın H, Ercan ES. Testing DAT1 and DRD4 Genes in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Using a Wide Spectrum of Neurocognitive Batteries. Int J Dev Neurosci. 2026; 86(3): e70133.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by marked heterogeneity in cognitive functioning. This study aimed to examine the associations between polymorphisms in the DAT1 and DRD4 genes and neurocognitive performance in children and adolescents with ADHD. A total of 336 participants aged 6-18 years (244 with ADHD and 92 healthy controls) were included. Variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) polymorphisms in the 3′ UTR of DAT1 and exon 3 of DRD4 were genotyped. Neurocognitive performance was assessed using standardized scores derived from the CNS Vital Signs battery. Associations between genotypes and cognitive domains were examined using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), adjusting for age and gender. Homozygosity for the DRD4 4-repeat allele was significantly associated with poorer cognitive flexibility, whereas a trend-level difference was observed for complex attention. In contrast, DAT1 10R/10R homozygosity and DRD4 7-repeat allele carriage were not associated with significant differences in reaction time, complex attention or cognitive flexibility. These findings suggest that DRD4, rather than DAT1, may represent a more salient dopaminergic genetic marker of executive dysfunction in ADHD. The results underscore the domain-specific and modest nature of genetic influences on cognition and highlight the importance of integrating genetic markers with cognitive endophenotypes to better characterize heterogeneity in ADHD.

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13. Wei B, Yin J, Yuan W, Cai P, Song Q, Li Z, Ma X, Yang X, Hong L, Guan H, Du G, Yang W. Integrative Multi-Omics Analysis Reveals the Immunoregulatory Effects of Sepia Ink on ADHD-like Phenotypes. Curr Issues Mol Biol. 2026; 48(4).

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), affecting 5-10% of children globally, faces treatment limitations due to adverse effects and uncertain long-term risks of current pharmacotherapies. This study investigated the therapeutic potential of sepia ink (SI), a marine-derived natural complex from cuttlefish, in a scopolamine-induced ADHD-like mouse model. The chemical constituents of SI were characterized via Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-MS). The behavioral assessments, histopathological examinations, flow cytometry, and complete blood counts were utilized to evaluate its effects on ADHD-like phenotypes, neuroinflammation, and immune function. Integrated transcriptomic, plasma metabolomic, and 16S rRNA sequencing were used to explore the underlying mechanisms. SI significantly alleviated hyperactivity and improved spatial learning and memory deficits. It reduced hippocampal neuronal damage, attenuated neuroinflammation, and reversed scopolamine-induced immunosuppression in spleen and thymus. SI also restored the balance of immune cell subsets in both mesenteric lymph nodes and spleen, and the peripheral blood cell counts. Multi-omics analyses suggested that the beneficial effects of SI were associated with reduced neuroinflammation, rebalanced systemic immune responses, partial correction of lipid metabolic disturbances, and restoration of gut microbiota homeostasis. Collectively, our findings indicate that SI effectively mitigates the in vivo ADHD-like impairments by coordinating immune, metabolic, and gut microbiota-related processes, thereby supporting its potential as a marine-derived therapeutic candidate for further ADHD treatment.

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14. Yang S, Kim JW, Lee S, Kwon J. Neurophysiological Effects of a Digital Therapeutic for Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Quantitative Electroencephalography Analysis of Theta-Gamma Coupling. Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci. 2026; 24(2): 344-52.

OBJECTIVE: This study evaluated the neurophysiological effects of ADAM-101, a game-based digital therapeutic, in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) using quantitative electroencephalography (qEEG). We focused on theta-gamma coupling (TGC), a neural synchrony marker linked to attentional control and executive function. METHODS: Eighteen children with ADHD were randomized to an intervention group (n = 9; pharmacotherapy + ADAM-101) or a control group (n = 9; pharmacotherapy only). qEEG was recorded at baseline and after 4 weeks. TGC in the prefrontal cortex was quantified using the synchronization index method with gamma frequencies subdivided into 3-Hz bins between 30 and 51 Hz. RESULTS: The intervention group showed increased prefrontal TGC following the 4-week program, while the control group demonstrated decreases. These findings suggest that gamified cognitive training via ADAM-101 may enhance cross-frequency coupling mechanisms underlying attention and cognitive regulation. CONCLUSION: ADAM-101, when combined with pharmacotherapy, improved neural synchrony in pediatric ADHD, as evidenced by increased prefrontal TGC. This exploratory trial supports the potential of digital therapeutics as adjunctive interventions targeting neurophysiological mechanisms of attentional control. Larger studies are needed to validate these preliminary results.

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15. Yeung JT, Wan P, Chen W. Guanfacine as a Treatment Option for Persistent Mental Restlessness and Deliberate Self-harm Thoughts in a Patient with Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Autism Spectrum Disorder, Borderline Personality Disorder, and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: Case Report. Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci. 2026; 24(2): 419-24.

Deliberate self-harm (DSH) in adolescents presents a significant clinical challenge, particularly when compounded by comorbidities such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), borderline personality disorder (BPD), and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). We describe a case of a 16-year-old transgender Māori male with ADHD, ASD traits, BPD, and PTSD, who presented with persistent mental restlessness experienced as intrusive DSH ideation. He had limited benefit and intolerable side effects with atomoxetine but responded to guanfacine modified-release. Guanfacine modified-release (1 mg nocte) treatment coincided with a marked reduction in mental restlessness and intrusive DSH ideation. During the follow-up period, there was a decrease in acute healthcare utilisation. Then the patient self-ceased guanfacine, coinciding with a return of DSH ideation and behaviours. We hypothesise that the ADHD-related mental restlessness was associated with intrusive DSH ideation; amelioration of mental restlessness and self-harm ideation by guanfacine can be interpreted as the ‘dechallenge’ phase of a ‘challenge-dechallenge’ natural experiment. This case provides novel evidence for the potential therapeutic role of guanfacine in mitigating persistent self-harm thoughts, via modulation of mental restlessness and impulsivity. Our observation provides preliminary evidence of the potential benefit of guanfacine in treating DSH, in the context of patients with co-occurring cognitive rigidity, trauma exposure, and emotional dysregulation. This case aligns with emerging evidence for the efficacy of guanfacine for ASD and trauma-related disorders, but is the first – in the existing literature – for ADHD and trauma history in an adolescent with BPD and transgender intersectionality.

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