1. Al-Mahrouqi T, Al-Balushi O, Al-Huseini S, Al-Battashi M, Al-Hosni A, Panchatcharam SM, Al-Adawi S, Mirza H. The Association Between Job-Seeking & Adult Attention Deficient Hyperactivity Disorder Among Working-Age Individuals in Oman: A Retrospective Study from the National Clinical Service for Adult ADHD in Oman. Behav Sci (Basel). 2026; 16(1).

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) presents significant challenges in all age groups, affecting various aspects of daily functioning and quality of life. Objective: This study aims to explore the rate and associated factors of unemployment among ADHD in adults. A retrospective cohort study was conducted, including 179 adults diagnosed with ADHD seeking consultation at a comprehensive ADHD clinic at a tertiary hospital in urban Oman. Sociodemographic characteristics, clinical presentations, and factors associated with employment status were collected. 41% of the participants were actively seeking employment. Among the correlates of unemployment is obesity (OR 5.64, p = 0.011, 95% CI 1.49-21.43). Other variables, including education level and marital status, also influenced employment rates, with bachelor’s degree holders showing higher chances of unemployment (OR 5.35, p = 0.009, 95% CI 1.52-18.88). Marital status was closely associated with unemployment, with 39.5% of married individuals unemployed (p = 0.022). Furthermore, anxiety disorders were closely associated with unemployment (p = 0.026). Nearly one-third of the cohort had a comorbid substance use disorder (30%), and 6% reported suicidal attempts. This study highlights the significantly high prevalence of job seeking among adults with ADHD. Obesity, education level, marital status, and anxiety disorders were strongly associated with job search.

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2. Becker TB, Gibbs RL, Jr. Nutrition for Youth Athletes with ADHD: What We Know and Practical Applications. Nutrients. 2026; 18(2).

Over 10% of US children and adolescents have attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), with a similar prevalence among youth athletes. While ADHD may confer certain athletic performance advantages such as heightened quickness, decision-making and periods of hyperfocus, it also poses some challenges including reduced concentration, frustration, and possible increased injury risk. Pharmacologic treatments, including stimulant-based medications, can improve attentiveness and athletic performance but could alter nutritional behaviors such as appetite suppression. This paper reviews the current literature on nutritional strategies to provide practical sports nutrition guidelines for children and adolescent athletes with ADHD. Evidence suggests that optimizing energy intake, emphasizing complex carbohydrates, improving fat quality intake, and consuming adequate amounts of micronutrients may support both athletic performance and ADHD symptom management. In contrast, excessive added sugars and saturated fats are associated with poorer outcomes and manifestation of ADHD symptoms. Although no research examining nutritional interventions in youth athletes with ADHD have been performed, applying established sports nutrition principles for youth athletes with ADHD offers a promising approach to enhance performance, reduce injury risk, and support the long-term health of the athlete.

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3. Bueno-Galán MDM, Barbosa-Torres C, Godoy-Merino MJ, Yandi A, Arévalo-Martínez A, Cantillo-Cordero MP, Sánchez MEG, Moreno-Manso JM. Exploring Associations Between STEAM-Based Interventions and Executive and Cognitive Skills in Children with ADHD. Healthcare (Basel). 2026; 14(2).

Background: This study examines whether participation in STEAM-based educational activities is associated with improvements in executive functions (EFs) and cognitive skills in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Methods: A total of 60 children diagnosed with ADHD (mean age = 8 years) participated, with 30 following a traditional educational approach and 30 engaged in STEAM-based activities. Executive functions and cognitive abilities were assessed using standardized instruments (BRIEF, WISC-V, CARAS-R), and data were analyzed with IBM SPSS Statistics 25. Results: Children in the STEAM group outperformed the control group across several domains, showing statistically significant gains in inhibition, planning and organization, verbal comprehension, visuospatial skills, processing speed, total IQ, efficiency, and the Impulsivity Control Index (ICI). Conclusions: These findings suggest that STEAM-based educational experiences may support neurodevelopmental growth and enhance cognitive and executive functioning in children with ADHD, although causal inferences cannot be drawn due to the cross-sectional design.

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4. Chen D, Zhao Z, Chen W. Hyper-arousal vitality and its repair for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Front Psychiatry. 2025; 16: 1611535.

Although the social challenges faced by individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are often attributed to attention deficits and hyperactive symptoms, their complexity necessitates re-examination from the perspective of dynamic vitality forms (VFs). VFs theory emphasizes the central role of dynamic movement styles (e.g., intensity, rhythm, spatiotemporal trajectories) in emotional transmission and intention understanding during social interactions. This study integrates neural mechanisms and behavioral characteristics to explore the abnormal manifestations of VFs in ADHD and determine their impact on social interactions. Individuals with ADHD exhibit significant dysregulation in the stability, intensity, coordination, and emotional valence of VFs, which is associated with functional abnormalities in the dorsal central insula-middle cingulate cortex (DCI-MCC) circuit that involve dopamine system dysregulation, motor coordination deficits, and emotional integration imbalances. Leveraging the dynamic plasticity of VFs, this study proposes intervention pathways such as structured motor training, impulse control, and VFs mirroring exercises to improve social functioning by utilizing the cognitive flexibility advantages of ADHD. It underscores the importance of addressing the social challenges of ADHD by moving beyond traditional behavioral frameworks and focusing on the dynamic repair of VFs.

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5. Corbo D, Grandi LC. Neurobiological Convergence in SPDs and ADHD: Insights from a Narrative Review. Biology (Basel). 2026; 15(2).

The sensory system plays a critical role in development, as it enables the processing and integration of internal and external stimuli. Dysfunctions in this system lead to sensory processing disorders (SPDs), which affect approximately 5-13% of children aged 4-6 years, impacting not only sensory responsiveness but also social interaction, emotional regulation, motor coordination, learning, attention, communication, and sleep. Although SPDs have been extensively investigated from molecular to behavioral levels, their underlying neurobiological mechanisms remain debated, and reliable biomarkers are still lacking. Moreover, due to overlapping behavioral manifestations, SPDs are frequently misdiagnosed as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), leading to challenges in accurate diagnosis and treatment planning. This narrative review aims to synthesize current evidence on the neurofunctional and molecular underpinnings of SPDs in relation to ADHD, providing an integrated perspective on their converging and diverging pathways. By comparing neuroimaging and neurophysiological findings across the two conditions, we seek to deepen understanding of their shared mechanisms, clarify diagnostic boundaries, and inform the development of targeted, evidence-based interventions to address a critical gap in the field.

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6. Ghannadi F, Shamabadi A, Talebinejad MS, Naseh E, Heidari E, Paknezhad S, Mohammadi M, Akhondzadeh S. Sulforaphane Adjunct to Methylphenidate for Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Randomized, Double-blind, Placebo-controlled Trial. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2025; 48(6): 181-7.

OBJECTIVES: Available treatment strategies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) encounter significant limitations and, thus, necessitate novel therapeutic approaches. In this regard, this study investigated the effects of sulforaphane due to its neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. METHODS: Seventy ADHD outpatients aged 6 to 11 were equally assigned to receive methylphenidate (0.3 to 1.5 mg/kg/d) plus either sulforaphane 30 mg/d or matched placebo for 8 weeks. The teacher and parent ADHD rating scale (ADHD-RS) was used to assess their symptoms at baseline and weeks 4 and 8. The patients were also evaluated for side effects. RESULTS: Thirty-two patients in the sulforaphane group and 31 in the placebo group completed the study with comparable baseline demographic and clinical characteristics (Ps>0.05). There were significant time-treatment interaction effects on the ADHD-RS total, inattention, and hyperactivity-impulsivity scores rated by teachers (=0.245, 0.203, and 0.246, respectively) and parents (=0.265, 0.283, and 0.159, respectively). Affirmatively, their reductions were significantly greater in the sulforaphane group until the endpoint rated by teachers (Cohen ds=1.192, 1.055, and 1.220, respectively) and parents (Cohen’s ds=1.344, 1.446, and 0.966, respectively). Better response to treatment (≥40% reduction in ADHD-RS total scores), robust improvement (≥50% reduction in ADHD-RS total scores), and remission (an ADHD-RS total score of ≤18) rates were obtained in the sulforaphane group until the endpoint (Ps<0.001). The side effect frequencies were comparable between the groups (Ps>0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Sulforaphane adjunct to methylphenidate was beneficial for inattention, hyperactivity-impulsivity, and total symptoms of children with ADHD safely and tolerably.

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7. Gregorio MV, Abdollahipour R, Valtr L, Hannesdóttir DK, Palomo-Nieto M, Ramón-Otero I. Providing choice boosts immediate force production in adolescents with ADHD. Hum Mov Sci. 2026; 106: 103463.

Children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often struggle with motor skill performance, which can reduce their participation in sports and physical activities. This may be due to a lack of personal relevance and a sensitivity to controlling environments that reduce motivation. Since autonomy support has been shown to enhance motor performance across different motor tasks and populations, this study aimed to investigate its effects on the immediate motor performance of adolescents with ADHD during a maximum force production task. Twenty-six adolescents aged 13 to 15 (mean age = 14.1 years, 20 boys and 6 girls) participated in a within-subjects experimental design, where each performed six maximum force attempts (three attempts each hand) using a dynamometer under two conditions: choice and no-choice. In the choice condition, participants selected the order in which they used their preferred and non-preferred hands, while in the no-choice condition, they completed six attempts in an order that matched the sequence chosen by the previous participant. A 20-s rest was given between each attempt. Once participants had finished six attempts in each condition, they were asked to fill out the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory. The results showed that maximum force production, as well as self-reported interest/enjoyment, and perceived competence, were all higher in the choice condition compared to the no-choice condition. No significant differences were found in the perception of choice or pressure/tension. These findings suggest that even small opportunities for autonomy-support can improve motor performance and positively influence factors that predict intrinsic motivation specifically, interest/enjoyment and perceived competence, in adolescents with ADHD.

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8. Hedstrom E, Kostyrka-Allchorne K, Ballard C, James N, Wright H, Daley D, Glazebrook C, Kreppner J, Cattel C, Gordon D, Gordon N, Tuttlebee T, Sonuga-Barke E. ‘Until You Get the Diagnosis You’re Forever in Limbo’-Parents’ Experiences of Waiting for an Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Assessment With Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services. Health Expect. 2026; 29(1): e70569.

BACKGROUND: Parents in the United Kingdom seeking an assessment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) for their child experience a significant wait before receiving an appointment with Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS), yet little has been written on how parents experience this period. Through qualitative interviews, we sought to understand how the period of waiting from being accepted onto a service waitlist and receiving a diagnostic assessment impacts parents and their children. METHOD: The study was nested within a large randomised controlled trial. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 41 parents of children aged 5-11 years. 30% of parents had waited between 18 and 24 months on a CAMHS waitlist, with 10% waiting more than 2 years. Reflexive thematic analysis was used to analyse data. RESULTS: At the point of the interview, around 50% of children were still waiting for an initial assessment. Six themes reflecting parents’ uncertainty around the assessment process, lack of communication from services, the importance of receiving a diagnosis, difficulty accessing support and the negative impact of waiting on mental health and education, as well as recommendations to improve communication between services and families, emerged. CONCLUSION: Parents recognised the pressures on services to offer timely support; however, their well-being could be substantially improved by more clarity around wait times, as well as more effective signposting and support from services concerning the assessment process. This may help alleviate some of the stressors associated with their child’s assessment journey, such as feeling responsible for their child’s difficulties and the burden of supporting their educational needs. PATIENT AND PUBLIC CONTRIBUTION: This study was nested within the OPTIMA trial, where PPI panel members provided ongoing support in various aspects of the study, including advising on participant communication, study design and data analysis. All PPI members have lived experience of having a neurodivergent child. For this study, the PPI co-produced the interview schedule and took part in transcript analysis using a thematic framework approach. To acknowledge their contributions, members of the PPI panel are included as co-authors.

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9. Hudson B, Connell S, Kurumlian A, Fernandes A, Bhurawala H, Poulton A. Unmet Needs and Service Priorities for ADHD in Australia: AI-Assisted Analysis of Senate Inquiry Submissions. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2026; 23(1).

OBJECTIVE: To analyse written submissions from individuals and families with lived experience of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) to the 2023 Australian Senate Inquiry, using artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted thematic analysis. The aim was to identify priority concerns, service needs, and community-proposed solutions. METHODS: A mixed-methods study of 505 publicly available submissions from individuals with ADHD and their families. Submissions were analysed using large language model (LLM)-assisted data extraction and thematic clustering, with human validation and review. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Frequency and thematic distribution of (1) problems experienced; (2) services wanted; and (3) solutions suggested. RESULTS: Thematic analysis of 480 eligible submissions revealed high costs and long wait times for assessment and treatment (each cited by 46%), lack of specialised care (39%), diagnostic delays (36%), and gender bias (27%). The most common service request was for affordable and accessible ADHD-specific care (71%), followed by services tailored to diverse populations and life stages. Proposed solutions focused on Medicare-funded access to psychological and psychiatric services (68%), expanded roles for general practitioners, improved provider training (39%), and recognition of ADHD under the National Disability Insurance Scheme. Submissions also highlighted misalignment between current clinical guidelines and public expectations. CONCLUSIONS: The findings highlight substantial unmet needs and systemic barriers in ADHD diagnosis and care in Australia. The AI-assisted analysis of consumer submissions offers a scalable method for integrating lived experience into policy development, providing numerical weighting to the individuals’ responses. Coordinated reforms in access, funding, and workforce training are needed to align services with both clinical evidence and community expectations.

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10. Izuchi C, Onwuameze CN, Akuta G. Social Determinants of Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Associations with ADHD and ASD Among U.S. Children. Children (Basel). 2025; 13(1).

Background: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are prevalent neurodevelopmental conditions in childhood. Beyond biological factors, social and environmental conditions influence developmental experiences and pathways to diagnosis. Nationally representative studies examining multiple social determinants in relation to ADHD, ASD, and comorbidity across recent years remain limited. Methods: We analyzed pooled cross-sectional data from six cycles (2018-2023) of the U.S. National Survey of Children’s Health, including 205,480 children aged 3-17 years. Parent-reported, clinician-diagnosed current ADHD and ASD were the primary outcomes; comorbid ADHD and ASD were examined secondarily. Social determinants included household income relative to the federal poverty level, parental education, health insurance type, food insecurity, and caregiver-reported neighborhood safety. Survey-weighted prevalence estimates and logistic regression models accounted for the complex sampling design and adjusted for demographic, family, regional, and temporal factors. Results: The weighted prevalence of ADHD was 9.7% and ASD was 2.9%; 1.1% of children had comorbid ADHD and ASD. Lower household income, food insecurity, unsafe neighborhood conditions, and lower parental education were associated with higher adjusted odds of both conditions. Boys had substantially higher odds of ADHD and ASD. After adjustment, non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic children had lower odds of ASD than non-Hispanic White children, consistent with differential identification rather than lower underlying prevalence. Comorbidity was concentrated among socially disadvantaged children. Conclusions: ADHD and ASD are socially patterned across U.S. children. Integrating developmental screening with assessment of social risks may support more equitable identification and intervention.

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11. Jongrakthanakij N, Prachason T, Limsuwan N, Kiatrungrit K, Thongpan M, Lorterapong P, Wisajun P, Jullagate S. From ADHD symptoms to parental stress: The roles of functional impairment, family functioning, and parental ADHD. PLoS One. 2026; 21(1): e0341817.

BACKGROUND: Raising a child with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is associated with significant parental stress. However, the complex relationships between factors in the child and family in shaping this stress are not well understood. This study aimed to elucidate these interrelationships and identify the key determinants of parental stress. METHODS: A cross-sectional study included 127 children and adolescents with ADHD (70.9% males; mean age 9.6 ± 3.3 years) and their caregivers, recruited from the ADHD Registry at Ramathibodi Hospital, Bangkok (2019-2023). Caregivers completed standardized measures of parental stress, child ADHD symptoms, child functional impairment, family functioning, and parental ADHD symptoms. Structural equation modeling was used to examine pathways from child and parental ADHD symptoms to parental stress, with functional impairment and family functioning specified as mediators. RESULTS: Examining child- and family-related factors separately, child ADHD symptoms indirectly influenced parental stress via functional impairment, whereas parental ADHD symptoms significantly influenced parental stress both directly and indirectly via family functioning. In the integrated model examining both child- and family-related factors concurrently, the direct and indirect pathways from parental ADHD symptoms to parental stress via family functioning remained significant, but not the pathway from child ADHD symptoms to parental stress via functional impairment. CONCLUSIONS: Functional impairment, parental ADHD, and family functioning, rather than child ADHD symptoms, are key determinants of parental stress in families of children with ADHD. These factors should be routinely assessed and targeted to alleviate parental stress more effectively than focusing on child ADHD symptoms alone.

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12. Kozonis A, Papadoliopoulou M, Margaris I. Fetal Growth Restriction, Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder-Connecting the Dots: A Narrative Review. Children (Basel). 2025; 13(1).

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Fetal growth restriction (FGR), formerly known as intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR), is defined as a fetus’ failure to reach its genetically predetermined growth potential. FGR has also been implicated in the development of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), though strong supporting literature has yet to be published. This study aims to review the existing associations between FGR and autism spectrum disorder or attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder as studied in relevant literature, as well as the mechanisms that provide explanation of that association. METHODS: We used a combination of the terms ‘Autism spectrum disorder’ OR ‘Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder’ OR ‘neurodevelopmental disorders’ AND ‘intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR)’ OR ‘fetal growth restriction (FGR)’ in an electronic search of PubMed/MEDLINE and Scopus databases. RESULTS: After evaluating the existing literature, we found only a few studies assessed the risk of developing ASD or ADHD in IUGR/FGR children. Neurodevelopmental disorders have generally been linked to very low birth weight, small for gestational age neonates (SGA), prematurity, somatic mutations, and intrauterine caffeine and alcohol exposure. While available evidence supports the notion that IUGR/FGR is related to cognitive impairment and behavioural disorders, the association with ASD or ADHD remains elusive due to the marked variability in the reported outcomes. Few studies have reported a respective higher risk for autism spectrum disorders, yet most of them have failed to identify a statistically significant correlation. CONCLUSIONS: While autism spectrum disorders and attention deficiency disorder have been generally associated with FGR children, the existing body of literature offers limited evidence to support this theory.

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13. Li M, Kirby JR, Wang T, Zhao W. Cognitive Profiles of Children with Reading Disabilities and/or ADHD. Behav Sci (Basel). 2025; 16(1).

Building on prior work, this study examined cognitive profiles of children with reading disabilities (RD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and their comorbidity (ADHD + RD) compared to typically developing (TD) peers. Participants included 151 Grade 1-3 students, where there were 31 students with RD, 43 with ADHD, 27 with ADHD + RD, and 50 TD in China. Children were assessed in four cognitive domains: attention, inhibition, working memory, and rapid automatized naming (RAN), with age statistically controlled. Significant group differences emerged in each domain. The TD group consistently outperformed all groups. The comorbid ADHD + RD group showed pronounced deficits in attention, inhibition, and RAN. One-way ANCOVAs and multivariate analyses indicated that both RD and ADHD groups showed weaknesses in attention and RAN, with RD group weaker in working memory and ADHD group in inhibition. A 2 × 2 factorial ANCOVA confirmed significant main effects of RD and/or ADHD across domains, with no significant interaction effects, supporting an additive model. Findings highlight distinct and overlapping cognitive challenges associated with RD and ADHD and underscore the need for domain-specific intervention planning.

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14. Liao W, Tan X, Lin J, Wu Y, Guo Q, Huang Q, Yang L, Peng Y. Distinct serum endocannabinoid profiles in treatment-naïve Han Chinese children with ADHD: a case-control pilot study. Front Neurol. 2025; 16: 1715342.

OBJECTIVE: Although peripheral endocannabinoid system (ECS) signatures have been implicated in ADHD among European and American populations, evidence from Asian pediatric cohorts remains scarce. This study quantified serum concentrations of four major endocannabinoids-anandamide (AEA), 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), oleoylethanolamide (OEA), and palmitoylethanolamide (PEA)-in treatment-naïve Han Chinese children with ADHD and examined their associations with symptom severity as measured by the SNAP-IV scale. METHODS: This cross-sectional study enrolled 22 children with ADHD (aged 6-12 years, diagnosed per DSM-5, IQ > 70) and 25 healthy controls (aged 6-12 years). Serum endocannabinoids were quantified via liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Symptom severity was assessed with SNAP-IV subscales [inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity, oppositional defiant disorder (OD)]. Group comparisons used t-tests, and correlations were analyzed with Spearman’s rank coefficient. RESULTS: Children with ADHD showed significantly lower OEA (1.21 ± 0.14 ng/mL vs. 1.65 ± 0.16 ng/mL) and PEA (0.69 ± 0.06 ng/mL vs. 0.86 ± 0.05 ng/mL) levels, higher 2-AG (1.94 ± 0.08 ng/mL vs. 1.72 ± 0.017 ng/mL, p = 0.001), and unchanged AEA (0.33 ± 0.05 ng/mL vs. 0.36 ± 0.05 ng/mL) compared to controls. In the ADHD group, OEA negatively correlated with OD scores (rs = -0.461, p = 0.031), but not with inattention or hyperactivity/impulsivity; other endocannabinoids showed no significant correlations. CONCLUSION: Selective ECS alterations in pediatric ADHD, particularly reduced OEA/PEA and elevated 2-AG with OEA’s link to OD symptoms, may highlight potential blood-based biomarkers for diagnosis and monitoring, warranting further research into ECS-targeted therapies.

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15. Lukito S, Li L, Chandler S, Kakoulidou M, Pavlopoulou G, Matejko M, Jackson I, Balwani B, Boyens T, Poulton D, Harvey-Nguyen L, Johnson A, Stahl D, Roberts A, Sonuga-Barke EJS. Comparing qualitative thematic analysis and machine-based topic modelling in the analysis of autistic and ADHD young people’s accounts of emotions. Sci Rep. 2026.

Systematic analysis of interview data can provide important insights into how young people experience and interpret their emotions. Both human-led qualitative (e.g., thematic analysis) and machine-driven quantitative (e.g., natural language processing [NLP]) analytical approaches are available, but their solutions are rarely compared. Interview responses by 57 neurodivergent adolescents to questions about their emotions, previously analysed using reflexive thematic analysis (RTA), were submitted to Topic Modelling (TM). Topic labels were developed in collaboration with neurodivergent co-researchers to ground their meaning in the lived experience of neurodivergent communities. Topics were mapped to RTA themes or subthemes to examine their proximities. Topic-based cluster analysis was used to identify participant groupings with similar topic distributions. TM revealed 10 interpretable and meaningful emotion-related topics – some closely overlapping with and others differing from the RTA themes. TM topics differentiated the young people’s emotional experiences at school from those in other settings. TM and RTA resulted in overlapping and different insights into the meaning of neurodivergent young people’s accounts of their emotions. Our findings demonstrate the potential use of TM in interview analysis and might suggest a potential complementarity between the TM topics and RTA themes, to be further explored using more advanced algorithms and a more sophisticated NLP implementation.

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16. MacMillan P, Yunus FM, Rogers MA, Jiang Y, Climie EA, Mah JWT, Corkum P. The Role of Sleep in Mediating Mental Health Symptoms During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Children with and Without ADHD. Children (Basel). 2026; 13(1).

Background: The COVID-19 virus is a source of both acute and chronic stress for many people. This stress could uniquely impact children and their mental health. Research has shown that children with neurodevelopmental disorders such as Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are at an increased risk of negative mental health symptoms due to stress, but high-quality sleep may be associated with a protective role against these symptoms. We, therefore, aimed to investigate whether the impacts of COVID-19 and sleep problems were independently linked with children’s mental health and to examine whether sleep could mediate the relationship between COVID-19 impact and child mental health. Finally, we sought to compare the degree to which sleep problems could mediate this relationship in children without ADHD and in children with ADHD. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, a total of 304 parents of children were sampled from a larger study investigating the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Canadian families and children in the spring of 2021. Parents reported on their children’s mental health, sleep, and the impacts of COVID-19 on their child. Of the total sample, 234 children were reported as having an ADHD diagnosis, and 70 children were reported to not have ADHD. Results: We found that both the impact of COVID-19 and sleep problems independently and positively contributed to the mental health symptoms (p < 0.001) experienced by children with ADHD and without ADHD. Children with ADHD were found to have higher scores for COVID-19 child impact, sleep problems, and negative mental health. However, sleep problems had a greater impact on the mental health of children without ADHD compared to ADHD children. Additionally, the results suggest that sleep problems mediated ~20% of the relationship between COVID-19 impact and child mental health in children with ADHD and ~51% of this relationship in children without ADHD. Conclusions: The findings emphasize the significant role of sleep in mediating child mental health symptoms during periods of stress in children without ADHD and in children with ADHD. We highlight the importance of considering sleep quality and supporting healthy sleep in times of stress to improve child mental health symptoms.

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17. Merzon E, Poluksht M, Ashkenazi S, Grossman E, Magen E, Geishin A, Manor I, Weizman A, Golan-Cohen A, Vinker S, Green I, Bershadsky A, Israel A. Exploring the Association Between Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Essential Hypertension in a Pediatric Population. Children (Basel). 2026; 13(1).

Objective: Current data on the association between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and essential hypertension (EH) in pediatric populations are very limited, as most research has focused on adults. This study investigated the long-term prevalence of EH in Israeli youth aged 5-18 years with ADHD, examining also trends in antihypertensive medication use. Methods: A retrospective cohort study was conducted using data from Leumit Health Services. The ADHD cohort (N = 18,558) was compared in a 1:2 ratio to controls (N = 37,116), who were strictly matched for age, gender, birth year and quarter, socioeconomic status (SES), sectors, region, and cumulative years of LHS membership up to the index date. Diagnoses of ADHD and EH were identified using ICD-9/10 codes, depending on the year of diagnosis. Logistic regression analyses were used to assess the associations between ADHD, EH and the use of antihypertensive medications over a 20-year follow-up. Results: ADHD-diagnosed children had a higher prevalence of EH, with odds ratios (ORs) of 3.17 (95% CI: 1.46-7.16, p = 0.0017) at 5 years, 2.94 (95% CI: 1.45-6.09, p = 0.0013) at 10 years, and 1.92 (95% CI: 1.26-2.93, p = 0.0015) at 20 years. ADHD patients showed a greater use of antihypertensive medications, including calcium channel blockers (OR 1.85, 95% CI: 1.02-3.35, p = 0.035), renin angiotensin system blockers (OR 2.20, 95% CI: 1.15-4.25, p = 0.013), and diuretics (OR 1.77, 95% CI: 1.21-2.60, p = 0.0028). Conclusions: These findings highlight an association between ADHD diagnosis and EH, suggesting regular cardiovascular monitoring of children with ADHD. Further studies are needed to uncover the role of stimulant medications and shared biological and behavioral factors involved in the pathogenesis.

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18. Pallucchini A, Varese M, Pergentini I, Gemignani S, Parapetto E, Maremmani I, Maremmani AGI. Stimulant Treatment Gap in ADHD Patients with Heroin Use Disorder: Clinical and Behavioural Consequences. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2025; 23(1).

BACKGROUND: Adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often have comorbid substance use disorders (SUDs). In Italy, individuals with both ADHD and heroin use disorder (HUD) are usually treated in addiction services with opioid agonist therapy (OAT), but stimulant medications are rarely prescribed. This may create a treatment gap for core ADHD symptoms. AIM: This study examined the clinical and behavioural profiles of ADHD patients with HUD who receive OAT but no stimulant treatment, compared to ADHD patients without opioid use disorder (ADHD/NoHUD) on standard pharmacotherapy. All participants were considered treatment responders in their respective services. METHODS: Data were collected from two outpatient clinics and included 103 adult ADHD patients assessed using validated tools for symptom severity, emotional dysregulation, and global functioning. Differences between groups were analysed using univariate tests and logistic regression. RESULTS: The ADHD+HUD group was significantly older and showed higher levels of emotional dysregulation, impulsivity, and current cocaine use. Despite clinical stability, these individuals presented a more severe psychopathological profile than their ADHD/NoHUD counterparts, who received stimulant-based treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Although limited by its cross-sectional nature and setting-related confounders, the study indicates that OAT alone may not be sufficient to manage neurodevelopmental symptoms in ADHD+HUD patients. Further research is necessary to assess the safety and efficacy of integrated stimulant-based treatments, ideally within dual disorder services combining psychiatric and addiction expertise.

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19. Papanikolopoulos P, Papanikolopoulou S, Gerede A. Preterm Birth and the Emergence of ADHD Symptoms: A Review of Recent Evidence. Medicina (Kaunas). 2025; 62(1).

Background and Objectives: Preterm birth is a common obstetric problem. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) affects an increasing number of children. There is evidence that all subcategories of preterm birth are related to the occurrence of ADHD. The present article reviews the findings of the last two years regarding this association. Materials and Methods: PubMed was screened for relevant articles published in English between January 2024 and November 2025. Keyword combinations of the words « preterm birth », « prematurity », « attention deficit disorder », « attention disorders », « ADHD », « preterm » and « attention deficit hyperactivity disorder » were used. A total of 28 articles were retrieved, reviewed and selected. Results: Preterm birth results in higher risk of ADHD, while early preterm births are characterized by an even higher risk of ADHD. Additionally, postnatal complications commonly experienced by preterm infants are associated with the presence of ADHD. It seems that the maternal use of ADHD medications during pregnancy is associated with a high risk of preterm birth, although there is a concern about the role of other psychotropic medications during pregnancy. Various neurodevelopmental disorders are also associated with preterm birth. Maternal use of glucocorticoids combined with preterm birth leads to higher risk of ADHD. However, the outcome of ADHD is shaped by a wide range of social, familiar and biological factors. Conclusions: Prematurity is a significant risk factor for the development of ADHD symptoms in children. However, many biological, environmental, and psychosocial factors, such as neurodevelopmental vulnerability, perinatal complications, maternal health and adverse psychosocial factors, act as regulators in this relationship. Researching and understanding these associations will help in implementing preventive measures in children who are at increased risk of developing ADHD.

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20. Piccolo A, La Fauci M, De Domenico C, Di Cara M, Fulgenzi A, Mancuso N, Bonanno L, Tresoldi M, Muratore R, Impallomeni C, Tripodi E, Cucinotta F. The Impact of Executive Functions on Metaphonological Skills: Correlation and Treatment Implication for ADHD Children. J Clin Med. 2026; 15(2).

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder frequently associated with impairments in executive functions (EF). These deficits have been linked to difficulties across various cognitive domains, including metaphonological skills (MS), essential for phonological awareness and processing abilities. Background/Objectives: This pilot study examines the correlations between EF and MS in ADHD children. Methods: A total of 84 children aged 6-14 years, diagnosed with ADHD and an IQ ≥ 70, were assessed using the NEPSY-II test to evaluate executive functions and the Assessment of Metaphonological Skills Test to assess phonological processing abilities. Results: Correlational analyses and multiple regression models were employed to explore the relationships between EF and MS, focusing on attention, cognitive flexibility, and response inhibition. Rhyme was positively correlated with processing speed and negatively correlated with response inhibition. Phonemic segmentation was significantly related to auditory attention and response inhibition. Age emerged as a significant predictor of phonemic synthesis and final syllable deletion, consistent with the developmental maturation of executive and phonological abilities. Conclusions: The findings suggest that deficits in executive functioning in ADHD children are closely linked to metaphonological abilities, which play a crucial role in the acquisition of reading and writing skills. Integrating EF training into phonological interventions can help reduce learning difficulties and improve cognitive and language outcomes.

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21. Schauer J, Aljohani OA, Cantor R, Fraser A, Haregu F, Hope K, Kirklin JK, Thompson C, Urschel S, Zaim N, Zhao H, Brosbe MS. Psychoactive Medication Use in Pediatric Heart Transplant Recipients: An Assessment of Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Outcomes. Pediatr Transplant. 2026; 30(2): e70272.

BACKGROUND: There is increasing recognition of the mental health toll of heart transplant on pediatric transplant patients and their families. Little is known about the use of psychoactive medications in this population. METHODS: The Pediatric Heart Transplant Society (PHTS) collects data on patients pre and post-transplant including medication use for anxiety, depression, and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. We analyzed psychoactive medication use among transplant recipients older than 5 years at follow-up and assessed for associations with pre-transplant risk factors and post-transplant outcomes. A survey about mental health resources was sent to all PHTS sites. RESULTS: Among 1792 patients older than 5 years at 1 year post transplant, 301 patients (16.8%) were prescribed at least one psychoactive medication, 246 (13.7%) were prescribed antianxiety/antidepressant medications, and 59 (3.3%) were prescribed medications for ADHD. Patients on psychoactive medications at 1 year post transplant tended to be older and more sick at the time of transplant. There was no association between psychoactive medication use on graft loss, coronary artery disease, or rejection at 1-year post-transplant; there was a higher incidence of coronary artery disease at 3 years post transplant and increased coronary artery disease and graft loss at 5 years post transplant. Screening instrument usage varied across sites. Mental health providers are typically available for patients but vary with regard to timing and disciplines involved across centers. CONCLUSIONS: A significant proportion of pediatric heart transplant recipients take psychoactive medications. Psychoactive medication usage is associated with worse long-term outcomes including graft loss and coronary artery disease.

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22. Scheer V, Valero D, Valero E, Weiss K, Rosemann T, Knechtle B. Examining attention- deficit/ hyperactivity disorder in endurance and ultra-endurance runners. Acta Psychol (Amst). 2026; 262: 106144.

BACKGROUND: Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a multifactorial and complex neurodevelopmental disorder. Prevalence of ADHD in the general adult population is around 3.1 %, with little data available in athlete population suggesting rates of between 7 %-8 %. No data are available for endurance and ultra-endurance runners. METHODS: Cross-sectional survey study in endurance (≥21.1 km to 42.2 km) and ultra-endurance runners (≥42.2 km), using the Adult Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Self-Report Scale (ASRS-5) for screening for ADHD and assessing associated risk factors and sex differences using statistical and machine learning (ML) techniques. RESULTS: A total of 601 runners participated (female n = 222; male n = 379; mean age 42.8 ± 10.1 years). Overall, 9.7 % of runners returned screening results above the cut off score from the ASRS-5 for ADHD, particularly half-marathon runners (14.8 %; n.s.) compared to marathon (8.0 %) and ultramarathon runners (8.7 %). No significant sex differences (female 10.8 % versus men 9.0 %) or differences in performance levels (elite (0.0 %) versus non-elite (10.1 %) runners) were observed. Age was the only statistically significant associated factor (p = 0.03), particularly in younger runners (under the age of 40 years). CONCLUSION: This study provides novel essential screening data on ADHD among endurance and ultra-endurance runners. The screening rates for ADHD traits exceed those found in previous studies with elite athletes and the general population. Clinical evaluation, using standard clinical criteria to verify the responses for a definitive diagnosis of ADHD is recommended, as well as increasing awareness of ADHD, education, support services and targeted interventions. Sports organizations, health professionals, and policymakers should implement systematic screening and education programs to address these concerns.

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23. Sitnik-Warchulska K, Izydorczyk B, Sawicki A, Markevych I, Szwed M, Lipowska M. A Dyadic Perspective on ADHD: Adolescent-Parent Reports of Behavioural Problems and Family Functioning. Clin Psychol Psychother. 2026; 33(1): e70230.

Diagnosing behavioural problems in adolescents often relies on subjective reports from parents or caregivers. Systemic theory emphasizes the need for multiple perspectives, including those of the adolescent. This study examined the alignment between adolescents’ and parents’ perceptions of behavioural problems in ADHD and non-ADHD groups and explored how family cohesion and flexibility explain the severity of externalizing and internalizing behaviours from both perspectives. Participants included 214 adolescents diagnosed with ADHD and their parents (adolescents: Mage = 11.24, SD = 0.91, 75.23% boys; parents: Mage = 41.92, SD = 6.43, 84.11% mothers) and 514 adolescents without ADHD and their parents (adolescents: Mage = 11.34, SD = 0.75, 51.56% boys; parents: Mage = 42.29, SD = 5.58, 87.55% mothers), from 18 cities in southern Poland. The variables were measured using the ASEBA instruments (Child Behaviour Checklist, Youth Self Report) and the Family Adaptation and Cohesion Evaluation Scales. Data were analysed using Actor-Partner Interdependence Models to examine actor and partner associations within adolescent-parent dyads. More boys were diagnosed with ADHD, showing slightly more externalizing problems than girls. Lower family flexibility predicted externalizing behaviours, with parent-rated flexibility linked to parent-rated behaviours, and adolescent-rated flexibility linked to adolescent-rated behaviours. Adolescent-rated family cohesion rated by adolescents predicted fewer externalizing behaviours as reported by parents in the ADHD group and by adolescents in the non-ADHD group. Internalizing behaviours were linked to family flexibility and cohesion, regardless of the actor (adolescent or parent). The predominance of actor effects indicates that each informant’s perception of family functioning is uniquely linked to their own reports of symptoms; given only moderate parent-adolescent agreement, these perspectives appear complementary rather than redundant. Assessing behavioural problems requires data from both parents and adolescents, as family cohesion and flexibility significantly impact adolescent functioning. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT04574414.

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24. Spink CS, Walker JW, Phillips SH, Falligant JM. C/T Ratios in Human Eyeblink Conditioning Paradigms to Examine Cerebellar Function and ADHD: A Narrative Review. Behav Sci (Basel). 2026; 16(1).

Eyeblink conditioning (EBC), a form of Pavlovian learning that relies on cerebellar circuits, offers a translationally relevant assay of adaptive learning and cerebellar integrity. In delay EBC, a conditioned stimulus (CS), such as a tone, overlaps with and co-terminates with the unconditioned stimulus (US), typically a brief air puff to the cornea. Trace EBC introduces a stimulus-free interval between CS offset and US onset, engaging additional brain structures such as the hippocampus. Acquisition of conditioned responses (CRs), their timing, and resistance to extinction have all been linked to cerebellar function. While EBC is a well-established paradigm in the experimental analysis of behavior and neuroscience, human studies applying it to ADHD populations remain limited and show inconsistent findings. One potential explanation for this variability lies in procedural differences across studies, particularly in the temporal structure of conditioning trials. A key parameter in Pavlovian learning is the ratio of the inter-US interval (C; time between USs) to the CS-US interval (T; time between CS onset and US onset). Known as the C/T ratio, this value indexes the informational value of the CS in predicting the US and has been shown to influence acquisition speed and response strength. Despite its theoretical importance, the C/T ratio is rarely reported or standardized in human EBC studies involving ADHD. The present review aims to characterize procedural features-especially C/T ratios-used in EBC research with ADHD populations or models, with a focus on how such parameters may shape performance and interpretability in studies probing cerebellar function.

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25. Tarlacı S, Topal YK. Heart Rate Variability and MOXO d-CPT Relationship in Children with in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback. 2026.

This study examined heart rate variability (HRV) in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) using a case-control design. A total of 52 children aged 6-12 years participated. ADHD diagnosis was confirmed by a child psychiatrist according to DSM-5 criteria, and comorbidities (e.g., anxiety, ODD) were excluded. Participants were then stratified into ADHD (n = 33; 17 boys, 16 girls) and control groups (n = 19; 12 boys, 7 girls), with MOXO d-CPT used to characterize performance profiles. Resting-state HRV was recorded for 5 min using the validated Polar H10 device. Time-domain (SDNN, RMSSD), frequency-domain (VLF, LF, HF), and non-linear indices were analyzed. The Good performance group demonstrated significantly lower VLF power compared to the Weak group (η(2) = 0.176, p < 0.05), and the SNS Index was significantly higher in the Weak hyperactivity group (d = 0.49, p = 0.048), indicating increased sympathetic activation associated with poorer performance. Non-significant trends were observed for SDNN (η(2) = 0.08) and RMSSD (η(2) = 0.07), suggesting modest parasympathetic differences, though these did not reach statistical significance. These findings highlight VLF and the SNS Index as the most robust HRV metrics associated with impulsivity and hyperactivity performance on the MOXO d-CPT, while other HRV domains showed only preliminary or non-significant effects. Future longitudinal studies are needed to evaluate HRV's potential for monitoring treatment response and its specificity to cognitive subdomains in ADHD.

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26. Wang C, Wang S, Sun L, Sui J. Abnormal MRI Features in Children with ADHD: A Narrative Review of Large-Scale Studies. Brain Sci. 2026; 16(1).

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder in childhood, characterized by persistent inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. This narrative review aims to synthesize and critically evaluate recent large-scale magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies to clarify the neuroanatomical and functional brain alterations associated with ADHD in children. By addressing current gaps in understanding, this work seeks to identify reliable neurobiological markers that could improve diagnostic accuracy and guide personalized interventions. The literature reveals that large-scale structural MRI studies consistently report abnormal development in total cortical volume and surface area, prefrontal cortex volume, and basal ganglia volume in children with ADHD. Moreover, gray matter alterations show significant age-dependent effects, with the degree of impairment potentially serving as neurobiological markers. Diffusion magnetic resonance imaging studies reveal disrupted white matter microstructures in regions such as the left uncinate fasciculus, superior and inferior longitudinal fasciculi, corpus callosum, cingulum, and internal capsule. Importantly, these white matter abnormalities often persist into adulthood, highlighting their clinical relevance. Functional MRI findings indicate reduced global connectivity within core hubs of the default mode network in children with ADHD. Furthermore, deficits in inhibitory control identified via fMRI may represent one of the neurofunctional signatures that differentiates ADHD from typically developing controls. By consolidating evidence from large-scale multimodal MRI studies, this review provides a comprehensive understanding of the neurodevelopmental alterations in ADHD and underscores their potential utility for improving diagnosis and treatment.

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27. Wennberg B, Kjellberg A, Gustafsson PA, Almqvist L, Janeslätt G. Time-Processing, Daily Time Management, and Autonomy in School-Age Children with ADHD Compared to Typically Developing Children and Children with Intellectual Disabilities-Different Patterns. Children (Basel). 2026; 13(1).

BACKGROUND: Children with ADHD and children with intellectual disability (ID) often have problems with daily time management (DTM). It is, however, less well-known how the underlying time-processing ability (TPA) may impact children’s DTM and autonomy. The purpose of this study was to investigate DTM, TPA, and self-rated autonomy in the activities of everyday life among children aged 9-15 years with and without disabilities. METHODS: The participants were matched samples of children with ADHD (n = 47), with ID (n = 47), and typically developing (TD) children (n = 47). A descriptive, comparative, and cross-sectional design was used. Group comparisons with one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), Tukey post-hoc tests, bootstrapping, and a cluster analysis were used to analyze the data. RESULTS: Children with ADHD and children with ID had significantly lower TPA and DTM than TD children. Children with ADHD had even lower DTM than those with ID. Children with ADHD and ID have the same overall pattern of TPA, but it may be delayed, affecting their DTM and autonomy. However, there was considerable heterogeneity among the children with ADHD and ID, ranging from skilled to having significant problems in TPA. For all children, the levels of self-rated autonomy seemed to follow the level of TPA. CONCLUSIONS: Children with ADHD and children with ID have an increased risk of delayed TPA, affecting their DTM and autonomy, which may also influence their participation in daily activities. The results indicate a need to measure TPA and DTM to tailor interventions for each child.

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28. Wills V, Chakraborty R. A Qualitative Study on the Experiences of Adult Females with Late Diagnosis of ASD and ADHD in the UK. Healthcare (Basel). 2026; 14(2).

Background: Adult females with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are frequently underdiagnosed due to gender bias, overlapping symptoms, and limited awareness among healthcare professionals. The scarcity of research on this subject-particularly in the UK context-underscores the need for further investigation. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to explore the lived experiences of adult females receiving a late diagnosis of ASD and/or ADHD and to identify key barriers within the UK diagnostic pathway. This study addresses a critical knowledge gap by examining the factors contributing to delayed diagnosis within the United Kingdom. Study Design and Method: The study employed a qualitative approach, utilising an anonymous online questionnaire survey comprising nine open-ended questions. Responses were obtained from 52 UK-based females aged 35-65 years who had either received or were awaiting a diagnosis of ASD and/or ADHD. Data were analysed thematically within a constructivist framework. Findings: The analysis revealed three overarching themes: (i) limited understanding and lack of empathy among healthcare professionals, (ii) insufficient post-diagnostic support, with most participants reporting no follow-up care, and (iii) a complex, protracted diagnostic process, often involving waiting periods exceeding three years. Gender bias and frequent misdiagnosis were recurrent issues, contributing to significant psychological distress. These findings underscore the need for systemic reforms and align closely with gaps identified in the existing literature. Conclusions: The findings emphasise the urgent need for gender-sensitive diagnostic frameworks, enhanced professional training, and a person-centred approach to care. Key recommendations include shortening diagnostic waiting times, strengthening healthcare professionals’ knowledge base, and ensuring equitable and consistent post-diagnostic support.

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29. Zhang Q, Cabrera-Mendoza B, Chen Q, Davtian D, Qiu D, He J, Polimanti R. Genome-wide investigation highlights global and local pleiotropy linking neurodevelopmental disorders to acquired hearing problems. Psychol Med. 2026; 56: e32.

BACKGROUND: Neurodevelopmental disorders have been associated with hearing problems (HP) later in life, but there is limited information regarding their shared biology. METHODS: We leveraged large-scale genome-wide datasets to estimate genetic correlation (global and local), polygenic overlap, and locus-specific pleiotropy among HP, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and Tourette syndrome (TS). Then, we investigated shared molecular functions, biological processes, and cellular components, and performed a drug-repurposing analysis to identify compounds that may target the pathogenic processes linking neurodevelopmental disorders to HP. RESULTS: We observed high genetic correlation of HP with ASD (rg = 0.22) and TS (rg = 0.22). With respect to HP-ADHD polygenic overlap, 34% of the causal variants were shared between these conditions, with only 74% of them showing concordant effect directions. We also identified nine chromosomal regions with evidence of ADHD-HP local genetic correlations with pleiotropic effects on other outcomes, such as smoking initiation, brain-imaging phenotypes, and bilirubin levels. With respect to HP-ASD, we observed an inverse local genetic correlation within CD33 chromosomal region. Pleiotropy among HP, ASD, and ADHD was also identified in two variants (rs325485 and rs2207286) included within 95% credible sets related to neuropsychiatric conditions, altered hearing function, and other traits such as risk taking and insomnia. Drug-repurposing analyses identified anisomycin for HP-ASD shared biological mechanisms and five compounds related to HP-ADHD pleiotropy. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings provide evidence that the comorbidity between neurodevelopmental disorders and HP is at least partially due to shared pathogenic processes acting through intrinsic and extrinsic factors.

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